TCPA - Biodiversity by Design

Biodiversity by Design

A guide for sustainable communities

A TCPA By Design' Guide

Town and Country Planning Association 17 Carlton House Terrace

London, SW1Y 5AS

Tel. 020 7930 8903 Fax. 020 7930 3280 Web: www.tcpa.org.uk

The charitable purpose of the Town and Country Planning Association  

is to improve the art and science of town and country planning. It is the  only independent organisation for planning and housing covering the UK  and the longest established planning body in the world. Its key objec- tives are to:

1. Secure a decent home for everyone, in a good human-scale environ- ment combining the best features of town and country;
2. Empower people and communities to influence decisions that affect  them;
3. Improve the planning system in accordance with the principles of sustainable development.

The TCPA occupies a unique position, overlapping with those involved  in the development industry, the environmental movement and those  concerned with social justice. The Association prides itself on creative  thinking and developing practical environmental solutions through its ex- tensive networks. It brings together senior politicians and policy makers and practitioners from a wide range of backgrounds working within the public, private and voluntary sectors.

The Town and Country Planning Association wishes to acknowledge the financial support of English Nature, the Hyde Group and the RSPB. The inclusion of a case study in this guide does not imply endorsement by them of all aspects of the development or its implementation.

First published September 2004 by the TCPA

This Guide has been prepared by URBED (the Urban and Economic Development Group), the TCPA and ALGE for the TCPA. Case study material from Berlin was written and illustrated by Neil Corteen. Additional comments and input were provided by Mike Oxford from Association of Local Government Ecologists, English Nature and by Caroline Green of the TCPA.

URBED is an independent research and consultancy practice specialising in regeneration, masterplanning, sustainability and urban design.

URBED Manchester 10 Little Lever Street Manchester

M1 1HR

www.urbed.com

Biodiversity by Design A guide for sustainable communities

Contents

Foreword and policy context   4 How the guide works   5

1. Design principles   6

1. Ecological function  6
2. Realising the benefits   7
3. Connecting with nature  8

2. Context study  10

1. The existing green infrastructure  10
2. Landscape character   12
3. Local distinctiveness   14
4. Protected habitats and species  16

3. Masterplanning  18

1. Creating new green infrastructure  18
2. Regional parks, green grids and community forests   20
3. Parks and natural green spaces  22
4. Greenway linkages  24
5. Street trees  26

4. Detailed design  28

1. Communal doorstep' spaces   28
2. Green buildings and private spaces  30

5. Management and stewardship  32 Bibliography and credits

Foreword and policy context

In mid 2001 the TCPA published "A Programme for Sustainable Communities" calling for the positive planning and delivery of a greater number of homes to higher standards in sustainable social cities – or sustainable communities'. This demanded enhanced levels of "biodiversity, renewable energy and energy efficiency", it set out a vision, which "Above all, sees our communities as integrated with the natural environment rather than set against it."

The following year Government launched its groundbreaking UK GOVERNMENT POLICY

"Sustainable Communities: Building for the Future Action

Programme" more commonly known as the Communities  UK Biodiversity Policy" Working with the grain of nature: Plan1. In one element of this programme, "Creating Sustain- a biodiversity strategy for England", published by Defra in able Communities: Greening the Gateway"2, the Government  20023 established the Government's vision for conserving

sets out its vision of integrating economic growth with en- and enhancing biodiversity in England. In the forthcoming vironmental enhancement in the Thames Gateway in order  Planning Policy Statement (PPS) 9: Biodiversity and Geologi- to "create a positive sense of place, provide environmental  cal Conservation, the Government will set out how it expects protection for local communities and enhance the quality of  the planning system to support this vision and help secure

life for those who live and work there."  the UK Biodiversity Action Plan targets for species and habitat

But how sustainable will the new developments be?  recovery. By so doing, the planning system will have a role Supporting a richness of biodiversity is one route to building in helping meet the Government's commitment made at the more sustainable neighbourhoods. The TCPA, in this the first 2002 Johannesburg World Summit to significantly reduce the of its By Design' Guides, therefore, sets out practical, design rate of biodiversity loss by 2010.

led solutions which can be implemented now. No focus can  Source:DEFRA (2002) Working with the grain of nature: a biodiversity strategy for England,

be found here on the meaning or definition of sustainable  http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/ewd/biostrat/

development, instead the purpose of this Guide is on the de- ries between urban design, architecture and planning on the livery that is urgently needed.  one hand and ecology on the other. It shows how enhanc-

UK case studies have been paired with international  ing biodiversity can and should form an integral part of examples, which provide us with useful lessons. They dem- masterplanning ensuring that we are "designing in biodiver- onstrate how we cannot think solely about protection of the  sity" from the earliest stages. We hope the series will be a environment but must also explore our relationship with na- reference point for planners and designers involved in the ture's biodiversity. It is a truism too often overlooked that our delivery of "Sustainable Communities" (both Housing Market nation's backgardens support a wide variety of wildlife, whilst Renewal and Growth Areas).

on many arable fields wildlife is threatened by intensive farm-  Now is a time of opportunity to create better develop-

ing methods. There is, therefore, evidence that development  ment and in the words of the founder of the TCPA to allow can, if it treads lightly on the land, deliver positive outcomes "the countryside to invade the town"4. In many of the Growth for wildlife on both brownfield and greenfield sites.  Areas for example, positive and rising land values exist which

The examples chosen, whilst illustrating ways in which  could be harnessed not only to create more diverse land- biodiversity can be created, protected and enhanced, are not  scapes, but also to establish an endowment for their future intended to be prescriptive. Nonetheless they demonstrate  stewardship. In Renewal Areas the task is to create places

that enhanced biodiversity can be achieved in concert with  to which jobs, homes and communities will be attracted and delivering other aspects of sustainable development, a vital  investing in natural greenspaces is key to achieving this goal. task for any emerging sustainable community'.  I am indebted to the support received from English Na- Prepared by URBED, Mike Oxford from the Association of  ture, Hyde Housing Group and RSPB without whose support Local Government Ecologists (ALGE), English Nature and  this publication would not have been possible.

Caroline Green from the TCPA, the Guide spans the bounda-

Gideon Amos MA RIBA MRTPI

Director, Town & Country Planning Association (TCPA)

5

Foreword and policy contextHow the guide works

The aim of the guide is to provide guidance on how to maximise the opportunities for biodiversity

in the planning and design of sustainable communities. The guide takes the user through the design process, presenting a toolkit of best practice that can be tailored according to the scale of the development opportunity.

In order to do this it draws upon lessons from over 20 international case studies, including a set of examples from the city of Berlin. These have been selected to demonstrate new approaches with potential for replication in the UK. Recognising the potential for differences in cultural attitude to nature we have included a short commentary for German

The guide has been tailored to respond to the scale and form of development being brought forward in response to the Government's Sustainable Communities Plan. Below w summarise the different scenarios we have used to inform th guide. Included within the guide are a number of examples in-progress' schemes promoted by the Communities Plan.

 Chapter One introduces the core design principles that form the basis for a biodiversity by design' approach: understanding ecological function, realising the benefits of biodiversity, and connecting with nature.

• Chapter Two explores tools and techniques for analysing a site and its context. In particular we highlight the need to explore relationships with the existing green infrastructure' the distinctive and multi-functional network of habitats, gre spaces and linkages.
  • Chapter Three explores how to masterplan the green infra structure for a sustainable community. In particular we look at how ecologically functional green infrastructure can be created, and how it can connect with and enhance the existing assets.
  • Chapter Four focuses on detailed design elements:

in particular the opportunities for urban ecology created by doorstep' spaces and buildings.

 Chapter Five explores how the long-term management and stewardship of green infrastructure can be secured. In particular we look at management plans, and the establish- ment of ecologically functional greenspaces. We also high- light the importance of resourcing and stewardship.

6 1.1we provide a brief overview of the basic principles of ecology, and the importance of functioning eco- Design principlesEcological function

Biodiversity is the variety of life, from genetic variation to communities of organisms. In this section,

systems in creating opportunities for biodiversity.

Biodiversity is the heritage of millions of years of evolution. When nature colonises a new habitat it follows a process Human society has had a dramatic impact on this ecological  called succession: the natural order of events as successive heritage. In the last 200 years more species have become  species colonise9. Hardy pioneer' communities change their extinct than at any time in the last 65 million years5. This  environment, improving it and creating more stable conditions threatens ecosystems' ability to provide the air, water and soil for self-sustaining and structurally diverse ecosystems, such on which we depend. Recognition of the need to protect bio- as oak-ash woodland.

diversity is enshrined in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan6.  Functioning natural systems are required to sustain bio-

A basic understanding of ecology is important in order  diversity, and successional processes. Habitats and their

to understand the factors that influence biodiversity. Ecology characteristic communities of flora and fauna rely on specific is the study of ecosystems: communities of species and the  physical conditions and ecological processes for their sur- physical environments and habitats that they have adapted  vival. Changes in water flows, water chemistry, air quality,

to survive in7.  shading, or disturbance may result in a loss of species and a

Each type of habitat, such as woodland, wetland or grass- change in the nature of a habitat.

land, supports a community of distinct, and well-adapted  Processes such as succession, water uptake, nutrient

native vegetation. Exotics, non-natives and hybrid species,  recycling, pollination, predator-prey (food chain') relation- are to be found in natural habitats and may be well-adapted  ships are features of functioning ecological systems which if to polluted urban environments8. However, in general native  disrupted can also lead to rapid changes10. An understanding vegetation will sustain the greatest biodiversity. Emulating the of ecological function should therefore inform decisions when composition and structure of natural ecosystems will there- planning and designing for biodiversity.

fore tend to create the best opportunities for biodiversity. The size and spatial relationships between habitat patches

also influences biodiversity. The fragmentation of habitats The UK Biodiversity Action Plan by agriculture and urbanisation has highlighted the need for

habitat networks: continuous, linked areas of habitat. Whilst The International Convention on Biodiversity was signed at  planning can create opportunities for habitats, urban form will the 1992 Earth Summit. As a signatory, the UK was required influence their size and extent. Masterplanning of a communi- to produce a national biodiversity action plan. This was pub- ty's green infrastructure' can therefore play an important role lished in 1994, with the overall aim being to: Conserve and  in creating ecologically functional habitat networks.

enhance biological diversity within the UK and to contribute  

to the conservation of global biodiversity through all appro- Definition of Green Infrastructure

priate mechanisms.' The objectives are:

Green Infrastructure is the sub-regional network of pro-

1. To conserve and where practicable to enhance: the  tected sites, nature reserves, greenspaces, and greenway population and natural ranges of native species; natural and  linkages. The linkages include river corridors and flood plains, semi-natural wildlife habitats; ecosystems that are character- migration routes and features of the landscape, which are of istic of local areas. importance as wildlife corridors.
2. To increase public awareness of, and involvement in,  Green infrastructure should provide for multi-functional conserving biodiversity. uses i.e., wildlife, recreational and cultural experience, as well
3. To contribute to the conservation of biodiversity on a  as delivering ecological services, such as flood protection European and global scale. and microclimate control. It should also operate at all spatial Sources: scales from urban centres through to open countryside.

1. Convention on Biological Diversity, http://www.biodiv.org/default.aspx
2. UK Government (1994), Biodiversity - The UK action plan, HMSO

1.2environment. In this section we explore how biodiversity can deliver the benefits of ecological Design principlesRealising the benefi ts7 There is increasing recognition of the many benefits of allowing nature to colonise the urban

services, improved quality of life and added economic value.

The green cities' movement has argued that nature should be Quality of Life

allowed to permeate the built environment, seeing nature in  Natural greenspaces can deliver a range of important social the city as a necessity rather than just a luxury11. This is be- benefits, improving the quality of life for urban citizens and cause biodiversity can deliver important environmental, social making higher density housing more attractive and liveable. and economic benefits, something recognised by the govern-

ment's promotion of biodiversity in community strategies12.  Health and wellbeing - Since the creation of the first pub-

lic parks in the 19th century planners have recognised

Ecological Services nature's importance in improving peoples quality of life20.

Vegetation can deliver a range of important ecological  Accessible green space creates opportunities for recrea- services and later in this guide we highlight examples of  tion and exercise, and studies have shown that it increases how this can be achieved:  children's creative play, social skills and concentration

span21. Natural greenspaces reduce stress and encourage

• Carbon sink – Trees have a significant capacity to absorb  relaxation, providing a sense of freedom and exhilaration22. carbon dioxide. 1 hectare of woodland can absorb emis-  Social cohesion - Natural greenspaces can encourage

sions equivalent to 100 family cars13. greater social interaction23. This more active use of green-

• Pollution control – Vegetation has a significant capacity  spaces, including streets and communal spaces, can con-

to attenuate noise and filter air pollution from motor vehi- tribute to a more lively public realm - a key urban design cles14. Street trees can remove sulphur dioxide and reduce  objective24. Participation in the design and stewardship of particulates by up to 75%. Noise attenuation can be as  green space can help strengthen communities25. Nature re- much as 30 dB per 100 metres. Wetland ecosystems are  serves can create a focal point for life-long learning about also effective in filtering polluted run-off and sewage.  nature (see Section 1.3).

• Air conditioning – In urban areas the heat island effect can

increase temperatures relative to open countryside by up  Economic Value

to 5oc15. Vegetation provides natural air conditioning. A  Natural greenspaces can increase property values, reduce single large tree can be equivalent to five room air condi- management overheads, and reduce healthcare costs26.

tioners16 and will supply enough oxygen for ten people17.

• Microclimate control – Vegetation can improve local mi- Property values – Street trees and views of natural land- croclimate conditions by providing shade in summer. It  scapes and waterways can increase property values by

can also reduce wind effects created by streets and wind  between 6% and 18%27, as well as helping to sustain val- loads on buildings, potentially reducing heating require- ues over the long-term and improving the image of difficult ments by up to 25%18. to develop brownfield sites, as demonstrated by Green-

• Flood prevention – Vegetation can reduce excessive run- wich Millennium Village's ecology park. Shoppers may off and increase rainfall capture. This reduces the risk  also be willing to pay up to 10% more to shop in tree-lined of flooding in low lying areas and can also recharge soil  streets28.

moisture and groundwater19. Management costs – Traditionally our greenspaces have been intensively managed, requiring significant and costly

There is a strong case for biodiversity to be designed into inputs of nutrients, herbicides and pesticides. Experience new developments to offset climate change effects, thereby  has shown that ecologically self-sustaining landscapes improving their liveability. can significantly reduce the need for these inputs29.

8 1.3Design principles Connecting with nature Urban citizens are increasingly disconnected from nature, reflecting the separation between our built

environment and the natural environment. In this section, we explore how people can be encouraged

to connect with nature.

As we have become a more urbanised society the separation   Community involvement – Participation in community between our built environment and the natural' environment  gardens, allotments and city farms creates opportunities has become marked. Many of the examples of best practice  for people to learn about nature whilst improving their

in this guide are about achieving a greater degree of con- own environment. Projects at Kentish Town in London, nectivity with nature – particularly in urban areas. Nurturing  Heeley in Sheffield, Springfields in Bradford and Hulme in a culture change in attitudes to nature is therefore important.  Manchester illustrate how this can deliver significant ben- There are broadly three main ways in which this can be en- efits32.

couraged: As we go on to discuss in Chapter 5, community  

involvement in the design and management and steward-

 Positive experience of nature – Biologist Edward O. Wilson  ship of larger public greenspaces can also bring benefits.  talks about the importance of biophilia': our intrinsic  Mile End Park in London, with its ecology centre and park,  delight and need to spend time in natural surroundings30.  is a good example of how stewardship and participatory  Research has also shown that childrens' experiences of  learning can be combined33.  nature shape their attitudes in later life31. The urban envi-

ronment should therefore be designed to provide people  As a theme connecting with nature' can be integrated into the  with a positive day to day experience of nature.  masterplanning for sustainable communities, as illustrated by  

Ecologically functional communal greenspaces,  the new district of Viikki in Helsinki.  

streets and parks can create a continuous experience of  

living in an urban forest', providing people with an experi-Viikki District, Helsinki

ence of nature on their doorstep. Experience from Ger- Community scale connections with nature

many, the Netherlands and Sweden shows that this can

make higher residential densities more liveable.  Viikki's 1,700 home eco-district masterplan has served to

enhance residents' connection with nature:

 Learning from nature – A positive experience of nature  

creates informal learning about nature through recreation,   Nature reserve – Viikki is adjacent to a 250 hectare discovery and delight. The next step is to create oppor- wetland bird habitat, with controlled public access;

tunities for formal learning. This can be achieved through   Enhanced landscapes – The Viikinjoa agricultural area has the interpretation of ecologically functional greenspaces  been enhanced to create a 34 hectare district park;

and nature reserves. It can also be linked to projects that   Green fingers' – Corridors of ecological planting bring explore natural processes, such as composting.  nature into the housing areas;

At a very basic level, signage and information   Ecology park – A special children's ecology park is being resources can be provided. However, greenspaces and  constructed following a design competition;

nature reserves can be designed as outdoor classrooms.   Environmental education centre – The Gardenia' is an

A good example is Benwell Nature Park in Newcastle  environmental education centre managed by residents; (see Case Study). As an amenity space and Local Nature   Garden centre – An advice centre has been established on Reserve it is used by schools and adult education pro- the edge of neighbouring woodland;

grammes.   Allotments – A range of smallholdings including plots and

greenhouses are available to residents.

Sources:

1. City of Helsinki (1999) Viikki – a university district and science park for the 2000's, City Planning Department
2. Gauzin-Miller, D (2002) Sustainable architecture and urbanism, Birkhauser

Design princ

10 2.1assets, protect local distinctiveness and minimise habitat fragmentation. In this section, we explore Context study

The existing green infrastructure The protection and enhancement of the existing green infrastructure is important to conserve natural

the relationship between a site and its existing green infrastructure.

As we highlighted in Section 1.1, the size and spatial relation-use, and research has demonstrated that brownfield sites can ships of a habitat influences biodiversity. Habitat networks  support a wide range of habitats and species, some of which are important in maximising areas of continuous and linked  may be priorities listed in the UK BAP1. In London, for exam- habitat. This requires an understanding of the existing green  ple, brownfield sites such as the Lower Lea are recognised infrastructure: the network of habitats, greenspaces and  as being some of the city's most ecologically diverse areas2. green grid' linkages; its assets, functional requirements and  With their often unique mosaic of habitats and site conditions the benefits it could deliver.  they may represent valuable assets within the green infra-

In some parts of the country such as the East Midlands,  structure: something recognised by Planning Policy Guidance the green infrastructure may be relatively impoverished, re- (PPG) 3, Housing, in its definition of previously developed quiring the creation of new green infrastructure. In other areas land3. A strategic approach to their protection and enhance- the infrastructure may be more developed, as demonstrated  ment was pioneered by Germany's Emscher Park project4 and

by the Kent Green Grid', with its range of functions.  in Berlin, the Schoneberger Naturpark demonstrates how their

Valuable features of the urban fringe may include pro- potential can be maximised (Case Study, Section 2.4).

tected nature reserves, forests and greenway' links such as  Existing green infrastructure within urban areas can also hedgerows and waterways. Valuable features within urban  be enhanced to deliver ecological services5. A good example areas may include protected nature reserves, links such as  is Berlin's biotope' strategy. The strategy has been closely old railway lines, existing parks and brownfield sites.  related to work on urban climate zones and ecological serv-

There is an increasing recognition of the potential value  ices.

of brownfield sites, particularly those previously in industrial

Habitat Networks, The Netherlands Biotope Strategy, Berlin

Sub-regional scale ecologically functional green infrastructure City-scale green infrastructure to deliver ecological services

The Netherlands has pioneered the planning of habitat net- Introduced in 1994, the Biotope Area Factor' strategy aims to works and this work suggests that there are four key steps6: retain densities whilst developing the city's green infrastruc-

ture. Plans of existing habitat networks have been prepared

1. Determine priorities – what are the priority habitats and  covering the whole city, and dividing it into character areas species? which include8:
2. Determine acceptable risk – what are the risks from

weaknesses in the network?  Central city (intense use and densely populated) – main-

3. Determine habitat networks – what are the dispersal  tain densities whilst retaining or increasing areas available ranges for priority species? to nature.
4. Determine conservation potential – what is the functional   Transition areas (mixed uses including residential, indus- potential of the network?  try and infrastructure) – provide habitats that can serve a Dutch networks define corridors for species migration, and  wider area. Linkages are prioritised.

buffer areas to protect habitats from disturbance. This work is   Landscape elements (periphery of the urban area) – en- supported by the use of new GIS models such as LARCH7.  sure larger habitats with `fingers´ penetrate into the

Sources: 1. Opdam, P Assessing the conservation potential of habitat networks, p.381  urban area. These are valuable species reservoirs.

in Gutzwiller,K.J. (ed) (2002) Applying landscape ecology in biological conservation,

Springer Sources:

2. Foppen, R.P.B. and J.P. Chardon (1998) LARCH-EUROPE a model to assess the  Berlin Department of Urban Development (1995) Valuable areas for flora and fauna, see biodiversity potential in fragmented European ecosystems, IBN No. 98/4, Wageningen  map pop-up, http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/umweltatlas/ei503.htm University

Eastern Quarry, Kent

Community-scale connections with the Green Grid' 11

Eastern Quarry is a key development in the Thames Gate- way9. Over the next 20 years 7,250 new homes are planned,  grouped into five urban villages. The boundaries of the site  and the proposed greenspaces have the potential to link in to  an emerging green infrastructure network: the Kent Thame- side Green Grid10. Potential connections include:

  The southern and western boundaries – cliff faces and  

mature woodland, providing habitats for birds listed under  Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act;  

  The northern boundary – Craylands Gorge, is a desig-

nated Site of Nature Conservation Importance (SNCI) with  open grassland, scrub and secondary woodland habitats;

  Green zones' – a green space network will separate the  

villages, potentially linking habitats across the site. New  areas of water will have wetland habitat potential.

Sources:

1. Land Securities (2003) Eastern Quarry environmental statement – non-technical summary
2. Kent Thameside Green Grid (2002) Green Grid – creating a greener place

The structure and extent of vegetation in urban areas can  

have a major impact on temperature, humidity and run-off.

The biotope' strategy therefore seeks to develop a green

infrastructure that delivers air conditioning, microclimate con- SUMMARY

trol and flood attenuation.

The different climate zones within the city have been   Green infrastructure is an areas multi-functional network mapped, illustrating variations in air temperature, humid- of habitats, greenspaces and linkages

ity and soil moisture. The city has been colour coded into   Understanding the assets, functional requirements and five broad zones, clearly identifies the moderating effects of  potential benefits of the existing green infrastructure is greenspaces.  fundamental to a context study

The strategy enables a citywide perspective to be taken,   The ecological function of existing green infrastructure as enabling identification of important linkages, mosaic pat- habitat networks can be protected and enhanced through terns and species reservoirs. From a users perspective, this  careful planning

enables them to see how their involvement fits into the wider   Enhancing the existing green infrastructure can help to habitat network.  deliver important ecological services

12 2.2Context study Landscape character

Landscapes create a range of distinct environmental conditions influenced by factors such as climate

and geology, as well human activities such as agriculture and industry. In this section, we explore

how to characterise the landscape context for the existing green infrastructure.

The British landscape is the product of a range of natural and  The process can be illustrated by the proposed urban human influences. The countryside as we know it is largely  extension at Wellingborough in Northamptonshire (see case the end-result of evolving agricultural practices. Urbanisation study), where landscape character informs the development has created a patchwork of different land-uses, which have  framework. The potential value can be seen at Beauregard both contributed to and scarred the landscape as we recog- ZAC in Rennes (see case study), where distinctive elements nise it. Characterising the landscape is therefore an important of the rural landscape have been incorporated as greenways' first step in understanding the context, as well as defining  into an urban extension. The masterplan for Brighton's New the environmental conditions which create opportunities for  England Quarter incorporates distinctive elements of the ur- functional habitats.  ban landscape, in the form of a former railway line greenway'

Understanding the landscape character requires a number which extends out from the site (see Section 3.5).

of layers of information. These include physical factors such  The Countryside Agency has developed a useful on-line

as geology and hydrology, as well as historical and cultural  resource, Countryside Character', which provides a good influences such as industry and agriculture. Each may play,  starting point11. It consists of profiles describing the physical

or may in the past have played, a functional role within the  and historical influences for sub-regional character areas as landscape: such as water resource management or rail trans- the following example Wellingborough East illustrates, which port. Each will need taking into account during planning and is covered within the character area of Northamptonshire and design, highlighting relationships with stakeholders and statu-Leicestershire Vales'12.

tory consultees.

Beauregard ZAC, Rennes (France)

Urban extension incorporating rural greenway links

Beauregard is one of 22 planned development zones or  ZAC's' (Zone d'Amenagement Concerte)13. It is located to the  north of the city and is an urban extension onto agricultural  land. The plan explores the potential for improvement of blue  (water) and green (flora) corridors14. It is notable for incorpo- rating elements of the rural landscape.

The site was surveyed prior to development. Existing hedgerows and tree-lined country lanes were identified for retention within the overall masterplan. They now form pedes- trian routes integrated with and enhanced by the landscap-

ing and the new urban blocks. The old farmhouse has been  restored and forms the entrance to the new municipal Parc de  Beauregard, which is divided up by fragments of old hedge- rows and retained chestnut trees15.

Sources:

1. Gauzin-Miller, D (2002) Sustainable architecture and urbanism, Birkhauser
2. ICLEI (1999) Rennes, France – the control of urban space, http://www3.iclei.org/ egpis/egpc-136.html
3. Ville de Rennes (1997) Project urbain de Beauregard, http://www.ville-rennes.fr/ index.php?rub=224

Wellingborough East, Northamptonshire 13

Development brief for an urban extension based on  landscape character

Context study Wextension' planned for a greenfield site east of the mainline railway3,000 new homes and 110 hectares of employment land. A development framework based on landscape character has ellingborough East is a 361 hectare sustainable urban The development framework is built up from a series of 16. Over the next decade the site is expected to deliver  

been worked up, which was adopted as Supplementary Plan-

ning Guidance in November 2004.  

layers of context including landscape, ecology and wildlife,  

microclimate and drainage17. It identifies features for incor-

poration including areas of mature planting and conservation  

value, as well as existing hedgerows and drainage ditches.  

It also seeks to avoid development in the River Ise floodplain

and to explore connections with the proposed Nene Valley

regional park, located to the south east of the site.  Wellingborough East

Landscape Character - Northamptonshire Vale

The area comprises low-lying vales and river valleys extend- ing between wood landscapes and other areas of higher ground. Gravel, alluvial and head deposits have accumulated in the Ise and Nene river valleys, influencing settlement pat- terns and later industry. Floodplain land is in both arable and pasture use, with a strong pattern of Tudor and parliamentary enclosure, often with low, but well-maintained, hedges and variable densities of hedgerow trees. Wellingborough was founded on the iron industry and as a result there has been local extraction of ironstone in the 18th and 19th Century. Floodplain areas are also dominated by sand and gravel workings.

Sources:

1. Wellingborough Borough Council (2004) Wellingborough East http://www.wellingborough.gov.uk/business/weast.asp
2. Matrix Partnership (2003) Wellingborough East: Development framework, Supplementary Planning Guidance

SUMMARY

  An area's distinctive landscape is the product of a range

of natural and human influences

  Tools such as Countryside Character' can be used to

carry out landscape character assessment

  Understanding landscape character helps identify locally

distinct features and understand conditions for habitat creation

  Features may each have functional roles with associated

stakeholders and statutory consultees

  Distinctive features should be retained within the develop-

ment framework for a new community

14 2.3Each area of the country has its own distinctive communities of flora and fauna which have adapted Context study Local distinctiveness

to local conditions over time. In this section, we explore how to characterise an areas distinctive

ecology, using the results to create a pattern book for landscape design.

Maximising the opportunities for biodiversity requires an  

understanding of an area's distinct habitats and species. As  Local Biodiversity Action Plans

we highlighted in Section 1.1, native flora tend to sustain the

greatest biodiversity. It is therefore important as a first step  Local Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) are the mechanism to characterise the distinct ecology, or biogeography', of the for local delivery of the targets set out in the national plan. area18.  Each local BAP identifies local priorities for the protection of

However, it is also important to recognise that urban ar- distinct habitats and species. Local BAPs are developed by eas create their own environmental conditions and so some  Local Authorities in partnership with stakeholders such as the exotic species may be appropriate. This information can then Environment Agency, landowners and conservation groups. be used as a reference point for landscape architects.  Each BAP reflects the priorities of the national plan, cover-

Characterising an area requires reference to Natural Area ing priority habitats and species which are at risk, as well as Profiles developed by English Nature19 and the local Biodiver- more common broad' habitats and local species.

sity Action Plan (BAP)20, both of which are available as web

resources. Natural Area Profiles describe the distinct habitats

Urban Ecology of sub-regional character areas. As is shown in the example London Biodiversity Action Plan for Wellingborough East (Case Study, Section 2.2), which

falls within the West Anglian Plain Area Profile. Equivalent We need to balance the undoubted problems that some exotic tools for UK regions are Landmap, developed by the Coun- species can create against the rich diversity, historical and  tryside Council for Wales21 and Natural heritage zones, devel- cultural interest and the considerable local distinctiveness that oped by Scott ish Natural Heritage22.

the vast majority bring to the Capital. Most introductions are   Local BAPs provide definitive information for an area benign, and in urban areas the natural colonisation of waste- enabling distinct natural habitats and species to be identified land by native and exotic species has formed communities  - including those at risk. Additional sources include the UK's that are distinctive and unique to cities. broad habitat classification23, the national vegetation classifi-

cation24 and organisations such as Flora Locale25. Guides are also available, which cover species that are well adapted to urban habitats26.

This information can then be used to develop a pattern book of plant communities. The design value of this approach can be illustrated by the new community of WaterColor in Florida (see case study) and Amsterdam's Heem Parks (Case Study, Section 2.3).

Source: English Nature, www.english-nature.org.uk

Wellingborough East 15

BAP habitats - West Anglian Plain

Context study National significance Local significanceLowland meadows – unimproved neutral grassland oc-curs on the seasonally flooded (winter and spring) allu-vium of the Ise VCoastal and floodplain grazing marsh – periodically inun-dated meadows containing brackish or fresh water are alley;

rich in plants and invertebrates.

  Rivers and streams – from bank top to bank top, includ-

ing the open water area, fringing vegetation and exposed

sediments;

  Reedbeds – wetlands dominated by common reed, where

the water table is at, or above, ground level;

  Purple moor-grass and rush pastures – occur on poorly

drained, acidic soils, in lowland areas of high rainfall;  Sources:

1. Wellingborough Borough Council (2004) Wellingborough East

  Lowland mixed deciduous woodland – where a significant http://www.wellingborough.gov.uk/business/weast.asp

2. Matrix Partnership (2003) Wellingborough East: Development framework,

proportion of the cover is broadleaved and/or yew trees. Supplementary Planning Guidance

WaterColor, Florida (USA)

Greenfield community with native vegetation pattern book

WaterColor is a community in Florida designed to new urban- ist' principles. The masterplan for the 490 acre site is based on the interweaving of natural and built elements. The site consists of three overlapping ecosystems characteristic of

the region: freshwater marshes, coastal dune scrub, oak and pine woodlands. The masterplan is based on a recognition of these ecological zones' and their native biodiversity27.

To inform the design of new landscape elements an urban design pattern book has been developed28. This establishes a vocabulary of landscape elements for both public and private space which draws upon native vegetation. It establishes a native plant palette' with detailed listings based on charac- teristics and visual appearance. This has been used by the landscape architects to design the network of public spaces, and has also informed the design of stormwater systems.

SUMMARY

  Maximising opportunities for biodiversity requires an un-

derstanding of an area's distinctive ecology

  Tools such as Natural Area Profiles' can be used to es- tablish a basic profile of sub-regional character areas

  Local Biodiversity Action Plans (BAPs) will provide defini-

tive information on habitats and species

  The characteristics and visual appearance of native veg- etation can form the basis for a pattern book to be used

by public realm designers

Source:

1. Mays,V, Walk on the wild side, Landscape Architecture, December 2003
2. Urban Design Associates (2003) Patterns for place-making, http://www.arvida.com/watercolor/

16 2.4protection need to be considered in more detail. In this section, we explore the different levels of pro-Context study Protected habitats and species

Protected sites are an integral part of an area's green infrastructure and because they are afforded

tection, and the practical implications for adjacent development.

The process of characterising an area's green infrastructure  Protecting our Biodiversity Heritage

may have revealed the presence of habitats and species that  Designation Framework

are protected by law or by local and regional planning

policies. This may be because they are important remnants   European – The EU Habitats Directive and Birds Directive of our natural biodiversity heritage, of local, national or inter- form the basis for the pan-European Natura 2000 network national significance protected by either planning or statutory  of conservation sites. In the UK these sites are designated designations (see designation framework). They may also be  as Special Protection Areas (SPA) and Special Areas of regenerating greenfield or brownfield sites. In each case they  Conservation (SAC) and are afforded statutory protection will represent valuable conservation and educational assets.  under the Conservation of Natural Habitats Regulations

In order to develop land adjacent to protected habitats,  1994. Certain species of plants and animals are protected early consultation with responsible bodies is important. This  by the Habitats Directive, for example all species of bats. will help establish criteria required to protect functioning   National – Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) ecosystems and to ensure development proposals are appro- are the country's very best wildlife sites and are afforded priate. This will require reference to survey information, man- statutory protection under the Wildlife and Countryside agement plans and advice available from the Local Authority,  Act, 1981. It is an offence for anyone to knowingly dam- English Nature and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)  age a SSSI. Public bodies must take reasonable steps to such as Wildlife Trusts and the RSPB29. For habitats and spe- further their conservation and enhancement. SSSIs which cies of national significance there is a requirement to consult  have special qualities are designated National Nature English Nature and DEFRA on development proposals30.  Reserves (NNRs). Certain species of plants and animals

Development of a site will invariably have some impact  are protected by the Wildlife and Countryside Act, such as on the local environment. It is therefore the responsibility of  water voles.

a developer and their professional team to avoid damage to   Local – Sites of Importance for Nature Conservation functioning ecosystems and their associated habitats and  (SINCs) or Wildlife Sites are identified in local develop- species. Where impacts are unavoidable, measures must  ment plans, and are protected through the planning sys-

be proposed to mitigate and compensate for these impacts.  tem. Local Nature Reserves are statutory sites declared Site-specific factors may also need to be taken into account  by Local Authorities especially to promote education,

in order to meet statutory requirements, such as the vulner- awareness raising and accessibility to nature. Their

ability of resting and breeding sites, extensive foraging areas  significance may be set out in planning policies, so

and features that enable species movement and migration.  for example, in London there are sites of metropolitan,

Examples of a comprehensive approach to protection,  borough and local importance. Other statutory designa- and the mitigation and compensation of impacts include  tions include Local Nature Reserves, which are sites of Orton Brick Pits near Peterborough, a brownfield SSSI - and  nature conservation value managed by Local Authorities Portishead Ashlands near Bristol, a wetland foreshore SSSI.  especially to promote education, awareness raising and Developers at Portishead are supporting the creation of an  accessibility to nature.

adjacent wildlife reserve, extending the internationally signifi-

31 Sources:

cant wetland foreshore habitat. Ashlands' management plan  1. UK Government (1994) Biodiversity – the UK action plan, HMSO

also demonstrates how to maximise a nature  2. English Nature (2004) http://www.english-nature.org.uk/

3. Joint Nature Conservancy Council (2004) Protected Sites,

reserve's educational value. http://www.jncc.gov.uk/ProtectedSites/

4. Oxford, M (2000) Developing naturally, ALGE

Schoneberger Naturpark, Berlin 17

Naturally regenerating brownfield nature reserve

Schoneberger Naturpark is an 18 hectare brownfield nature

reserve. It is located between two heavily used railway lines

and was identified as a possible location for a new railway

yard, however, following a habitat survey, it was awarded  light canopy woodland covering two thirds of the site and dry statutory protection in 1999 as a Nature Protected Area'. The grass meadow with many rare insect species.

Naturpark is afforded protection equivalent to UK SINC status,  The reserve has successfully combined the needs of na- with the restricted areas equivalent to UK SSSI status. ture and the public. It has become popular as a quiet retreat.

The site had lain disused for almost 50 years, during  Access and movement are controlled in the most sensitive which time a process of self-regeneration had occurred. The  areas. Industrial features have been retained to highlight the site has been extensively surveyed, identifying ground nest- sites history. The use of art also enhances the experience

ing birds, insects and fungi. There are two main habitats: a  without detracting from its primary role as a nature reserve.

Source: Berlin Department of Urban Development (2001) Natur-Park Schöneberger Südgelände, see also Bibliograpgy 46 - Berlin Department of Urban Development (1995)

Orton Brick Pits, Peterborough  

A SSSI brownfield habitat

This 160 hectare brownfield site on the edge of Peterborough  

was first designated as SSSI in 199532. It consists of an unusual  

landscape of ponds and furrows resulting from former brick clay

extraction. This has encouraged the development of a mosaic of

habitats, including aquatic vegetation and open water pools.  A

It is of special interest for its population of great crested

newts, the largest in the United Kingdom, as well as standing

water habitats which support nationally rare stoneworts. The

newt population was discovered in the early 1990s, by which

time half of the land had been granted outline planning permis- B

sion for the 5,000 home community of Hampton33.

A major programme of newt translocation was agreed with  SUMMARY

the developer, along with habitat enhancement measures. An ex-

tensive network of access trails, and a water-level management   The existing green infrastructure may include habitats

system has been constructed. The resulting site is managed as  and species which are protected by statutory designa-

a nature reserve by the developer, the O + H Group, with pro- tions and planning policies

fessional support, and provides an educational resource for the   Protected sites are valuable assets, with an important community. educational and conservation role

Sources:  Developing land adjacent to sites with protected habitats

1. English Nature (2004) Orton SSSI - Notification under section 28C of the Wildlife

and Countryside Act 1981, http://www.english-nature.org.uk or species requires an understanding of their functional

2. Hampton, http://www.cygnetpark.co.uk/ requirements

  Survey information, management plans and advice

should be obtained from consultees and managing NGOs

  Impacts on protected sites should be minimised, and

where unavoidable mitigated and compensated for

  Adjacent sites can be used to increase the area of valu-

able habitat available

18 3.1Masterplanning Creating new green infrastructure

The establishment of a masterplan enables new green infrastructure to be designed to realise the so-

cial, economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. In this section, we explore how to plan new

green infrastructure which complements and enhances the function of existing green infrastructure.

At masterplanning scale the aim should be to establish a  The plan will also need to integrate and establish links green infrastructure network'. A Joint Statement on Green  with valuable features of the existing green infrastructure, Infrastructure' by English Nature and partners suggests that  as identified by the context study. These features can make its design should link or extend the network of existing sites, a valuable contribution to the network's provision of parks, providing green corridors...from urban through suburban to  greenways and nature reserves.

rural'1. The network defines a communities green infrastruc- Overvecht in the Netherlands demonstrates the basic prin- ture, integrating key functional requirements: ciples of a network. In particular it considers the importance

of urban design principles in planning for safe routes, as

 Urban design principles – a hierarchy of permeable  highlighted by the Safe Cities Movement4. The potential for UK streets defined by housing of sufficient density and mix  application of green infrastructure networks can be demon- of uses to animate the public realm. Communities require strated by Stratford City's proposed open space strategy. accessible green space as set out in PPG 3 and PPG17;

  Functional habitat networks – a mosaic of smaller green- The Green Infrastructure Network

spaces set within a continuous, linked hierarchy of larger Typology Provision Description

greenspaces in order to minimise edge effects and to

maximise the extent and variety of habitats available; Regional parks and  500 hectares, 10km Large, linked urban fringe   Valuable ecological services – the design of habitat net- community forests habitats with sustainable

works in order to deliver services such air conditioning,  forestry potential

pollution control and flood prevention (see Chapter 1.2); Park greenspaces

  Connections with nature – planned connections with  1. Neighbourhood 2 hectares, 300km Natural green space park

nature intended to provide opportunities for experience,  2. District 20 hectares, 1.2km hierarchy incorporating learning and involvement (see Chapter 1.3). 3. Metropolitan 60 hectares, 3.2km increasing areas of habitat

The network provision for larger greenspaces is based on  

Ecology parks  At least 1 hectare  Designed ecology parks recognised Accessible Natural Greenspace2 and Publicly

Nature Reserves per 1,000 population  and/or Local Nature Reserve Accessible Open Space3 standards. The network provision of

provision embedded within mosaics and linkages reflects best practice from EU cities.

green space hierarchy

Natural Greenspace – Urban Design Principles Greenway linkages Site specific Linear habitats incorporating

routes and waterways

  Interface – the interface between dwellings and ecologi-

Street tree canopy 80 trees/km road Continuous canopy linking cally functional landscapes should form a clear transition,

doorstep spaces to parks with residents having a choice as to which landscape they

want to use, and when;  Communal  At least 1 hectare  Habitat mosaics within

  Legibility – the extent and purpose of ecologically func- doorstep' spaces per 1,000 population courtyards and pocket parks

tional landscapes should be readily apparent and users  Green buildings  Site specific Buildings and private should be given a variety of routes through an area with  and private spaces spaces as habitats

all routes terminating in other routes. Sources: Adapted from

Source: adapted from Overvecht (2003) Green structure plan, http://www.making- 1. English Nature (2003) Accessible natural greenspace – Standards in towns and cities, Report No. 526 places.info/overvecht/potential/ 2. Llewelyn-Davies (2000) Urban design compendium, English Partnerships and the Housing Corporation

3. Overvecht (2003) Green structure plan, http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/potential/

Overvecht, The Netherlands 19

An existing communities Green Structure' plan

Overvecht in Utrecht has established a green structure' plan5  which takes into account natural and built environment fac- tors, such as building form, habitats and microclimate, as  well as social factors, such as safety, ownership' and amen- ity uses. The aim is to create a sense of place through the  definition of landscape character zone defined as6:

  Public and commercial building greenspaces  

  District parks and river banks  

  Parkways (road system)

  Greenways (footpaths and cycle routes)

  Doorstep communal greenspaces adjacent to dwellings  Private gardens

Sources:

Each has to function as a place resolving amenity use, land- 1. Overvecht (2001) Overvecht district atlas, http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/

atlas/

scape character objectives and biodiversity objectives.  2. Overvecht (2003) Green structure plan, http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/

potential/

Stratford City, London

A new brownfield district's open space strategy

Stratford City is a proposed new metropolitan centre for East  London on 60 hectares of brownfield land in the Lower Lea  Valley7. It is anticipated that 4,500 new homes could be built  by 2015. The aim is to deliver a place of many places' with  five main objectives8:

ve

  To integrate with the Lee Valley Regional Park in order to

SUMMARY

extend habitats and fulfil metropolitan park functions;

  To provide a network of continuous open spaces linked to

Linear habitats incorporating  pedestrian and cycle networks and the wider public realm;  A green infrastructure network can be used to define

the hierarchy and form of the habitats and natural

  To provide play facilities and recreational provision, which

greenspaces within a community

will serve areas of high density housing;

  The opportunities will be defined by the scale and form of   To preserve, manage and enhance principal ecological

development and its associated infrastructure

areas to provide rich and diverse ecological habitats.

  The network will need to integrate and establish links with

valuable elements of the existing green infrastructure

The open space strategy establishes a hierarchy of open

  The network will need to adhere to principles of good ur- spaces, and also establishes a complementary role for

ban design

private and communal spaces, exploring space typologies

  The network will need to resolve the functional require- and how they relate to different residential densities.

ments of urban form, greenspace provision, habitat net- tnerships and the Housing Corporation Sources:1. Chelsfield (2004) Stratford City – political briefing, http://www.chelsfield.co.uk/ works and ecological services (such as drainage)

home.htm

2. Chelsfield Stanhope LCR (2004) Stratford City - open space strategy, final draft

20 3.2Masterplanning Regional parks, green grids and community forests

Regional parks, green grids and community forests enable large areas of habitat on the urban fringe

to be linked together, creating a source of biodiversity for our towns and cities. In this section, we ex-

plore how they can be managed to sustain biodiversity and function as community assets.

Grunewald Forest, Berlin

The largest opportunities for continuous natural or semi-

Long-term stewardship of a city asset

natural habitat are likely to be located on the urban fringe. By

bringing together new and existing land areas, a mosaic of

The Berlin forest covers 17,500 hectares, 6,000 of which are native forest, wetland and grassland habitats can be estab-

lished.  within the curthe total city area)rent city boundaries (making up almost 20% of 11. The city bought the forest area in 1915,

These habitats are the building blocks for a green infra-

aiming to prevent speculative development, provide green structure connecting towns and cities. The planning of urban

space for the city and ensure a local supply of timber. The extensions should therefore take into account and explore the

result is that Berliners now have access to extensive areas of relationships with these areas of opportunity.

publicly accessible green space at little or no cost.

Urban fringe habitats have a key role to play as a source

Commercial forestry within the area is managed accord- of biodiversity for smaller areas of habitat within towns and

ing to sustainable principles, which has the benefit of produc- cities, providing there are linkages extending into the urban  ing higher value timber whilst increasing biodiversity12. In

area. They are important greenspaces for the urban popula-

practice this requires:

tion, and areas of forestry can also be managed to produce a

sustainable supply of timber.

  Maintenance of the forest's structure through avoidance The experience of European cities, such as Berlin, is that

of clear felling;

these areas of habitat can be managed as community as-

  Forest renewal by natural regeneration, with retention of sets in order to benefit a city-region. The Grunewald in Berlin

old-growth;

demonstrates how such an asset, in this case a community

  Harvesting through the scheduled selection of individual forest, can be managed on a financially self-sustaining basis.

trees;

It requires a long-term vision, as well as management and

  Protection of native habitats with particular attention to planning in order to resolve potential conflicts between nature

endangered species.

conservation, recreational use and forestry. The Grunewald's

Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC) accreditation is important

Currently 247 hectares of the forest are under protection,

in demonstrating that ecological objectives can complement

with visitor access limited in these areas. The success of commercial forestry (see Case Study).

this management approach was acknowledged with Forest Though a relatively new concept for the UK an ambitious

Stewardship Council accreditation in 2002.

Community Forest Programme was established in 19899. The

Access by residents and visitors is a central consideration aim has been to regenerate and revitalise 1,750 square miles

in forest management, requiring additional measures such as of countryside around twelve major towns and cities, trans-

pathways and the fencing of areas to allow natural re-growth. forming the landscape closest to where people live and work.

Signage and interpretation are used to raise public awareness The programme is sponsored by the Countryside Agency and

of how the forest is managed. Management costs are greater the Forestry Commission.

in areas which attract significant numbers, and the provision A good example of a project supported by the programme

of facilities and commercial activity in these areas generates is the Forest of Marston Vale in Bedfordshire10. The forest is

an income stream. There is also a focus on public transport managed by a trust based on a 25 year financial plan with the

locations, which ensure a broader spectrum of the public can aim being to benefit from economies of scale.

benefit.

Sources: 1. Berlin Digital environmental atlas (1995) Age structure and investory of the forests, Department of Urban Development, http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/ umwelt/umweltatlas/ei504.htm 2. Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz (1994) Ein neuer Umgang mit dem Wald (A new way of managing forests)

The Forest of Marston Vale, Bedfordshire 21

Multi-purpose green space on the urban fringe

Marston Vale is a community forest covering 61 square miles  between Bedford and Milton Keynes. It is a major growth area  and the forest is strategically important in preventing the coa- lescence of the two settlements and in providing public green  space for a growing population. Management is guided by the  forest plan, which was extensively consulted on with the local  community and is endorsed by the Local Authorities13.

Careful consideration of drainage systems has sup-

ported the creation of wet woodland – a national priority habitat within the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Habitats have been created that support both resident and migratory bird populations, as well as creating a range of attractive amenity  spaces. This has been made possible by working closely with Local Authorities, the Environment Agency, the Bedford Group of Drainage Boards and the private sector14.

A charitable trust has been established to manage the forest. The long-term aims of the trust are supported by a 25-year financial model. Financial support has been secured through the planning process and partnerships with Local Au- thorities, local business and central government15. The extent

of the forest is being increased, achieved through an ongoing programme of land acquisition. Active and ongoing local par- ticipation in design, planting and management ensures that local needs are met. A Sustrans cycle route linking together forest areas is also being developed by the trust.

Sources:

1. The Forest of Marston Vale (2000) Forest Plan
2. Marston Vale Surface Waters Group, The Surface Waters Plan, June 2002
3. The Forest of Marston Vale (2002) Investing in the success of the forest of Marston Vale

SUMMARY

  Regional Parks and Community Forests enable large areas

of habitat on the urban fringe to be linked together·

  Plans for urban extensions should take into account and explore relationships with these areas of opportunity·

  Forestry can be managed as a community asset, with the

potential to cover management costs through sustainable forestry and visitor facilities

  Community forests require a long-term vision, with care-

ful management to resolve the potential conflicts between conservation, recreation and forestry

22 3.3MasteParks and natural green spacesrplanning

Parks provide urban residents with access to recreational green space and an experience of nature

within the urban area. In this section we explore how parks can be designed and managed to in-

crease biodiversity, and how they can also function as nature reserves.

In Section 3.1, we set out a hierarchy of parks based on  communities, and their response to landscape conditions. recognised standards for the provision of natural green space Greenwich Millennium Village's ecology park demonstrates at a neighbourhood, district and metropolitan level. There are an application of this approach, and the park has helped to at- three main opportunities for biodiversity in the parks hierar- tract people to live in the area.

chy:

Local Nature Reserves

• Existing parks – changing management plans to enhance  There is an increasing recognition of the educational value ecological function; of creating Local Nature Reserves (LNRs). LNRs are places
• Designed ecology parks – provision of new ecologically  with wildlife or geological features that are of special interest functional greenspaces; locally, which give people special opportunities to study and
• Local Nature Reserves – heritage, semi-natural and  learn about nature'19. LNRs are a statutory designation made brownfield reserves as outdoor classrooms. by Local Authorities and they can include natural habitats, en- hanced man-made greenspaces, designed ecology parks and As well as providing recreational open space, parks can also  regenerated brownfield sites.

provide significant areas of natural green space, thereby max-  Benwell Nature Park in Newcastle is a good example of imising the extent of habitat available.  the potential value of LNRs to local communities (case study,

Section 1.3). The recent declaration of Kersal LNR in Salford Existing Parks has the potential to deliver similar benefits in the neighbouring Traditionally the design and management of British parks has Housing Market Renewal area.

favoured an ornamental and manicured appearance16. This

limits the potential of existing parks as ecologically functional

greenspaces. In order to enhance the opportunities for biodi- Iris Brickfields, Newcastle

versity, park management plans can be revised with the aim  Enhancing the ecological function of an inner city park

of encouraging more species-rich and structurally diverse

vegetation. Common examples include reduced mowing to  Iris Brickfields is natural green space in the Heaton area of encourage wildflowers and the establishment of field and  inner city Newcastle. The park was redeveloped in 1997 with shrub layers under trees. This approach is low input but can  the active input of the Friends of the Park' group. Ecologi- yield cost benefits, as demonstrated by Iris Brickfields in  cal management techniques were successfully introduced in Newcastle17. order to reduce overheads and make the area more attractive.

Prior to this it was managed as amenity grassland.

Designed Ecology Parks There is active community involvement in the manage-

In large masterplans there are likely to be opportunities to  ment plan for the park, including the local children's nature create new parks, including designed ecology parks. As we  club. Mowing has been reduced to allow wildflower meadows discussed in Section 2.3, the distinct flora of an area can  to grow and the result has received a good level of local ac-

be used as a pattern book to inform the design of ecologi- ceptance. The habitat potential of the pond and wetland has cally functional park landscapes. Dutch Heem Parks, native  also been enhanced. Plantations of willow and gorse have herbaceous gardens, provide an example of this approach18.  also been established. Professional support is provided by Their design draws upon an understanding of native plant  the ward rangers who are part funded through the leasing of

meeting rooms and a cafe.

Source: Dunnett.N, Swanwick.C and Woolley.H. Improving urban parks, play areas and open spaces, Urban research report, DTLR, May 2002

Higher Broughton HMR area, Salford

Kersal Local Nature Reserve 23

In 2003 Salford City Council adopted a masterplan for the re- development of a 16 hectare area of Higher Broughton20. The

plan includes provision for new housing, a school, a commu- nity centre and retail units. The site is adjacent to Kersal Dale one of Salford's most important wildlife habitats'21.

Kersal Dale is a 23 hectare Site of Biological Importance recently declared as a Local Nature Reserve22. Though it is  cut off by a main road with an inconspicuous entrance and no  signage to highlight its significance, the area is well used for  informal recreation and school nature walks. Habitats include  semi-natural woodland and wetland alongside the River Irwell.  

Sources: 1. Salford City Council, Higher Broughton Regeneration Area, SPG, Sept 2003

2. Wildlife Trusts, Salford Phase I Habitat Survey, 2000-2001
3. Greater Manchester Ecology Unit (2001) Kersal Dale, Record of Sites of Biological  Importance

Heem Parks, Amstelveen (The Netherlands)

Designed Ecologically Function  

The first Heem Parks of De Braak and Jac.P.Thijssepark were  designed for the Amstelveen urban extension. Heem Parks  draw their inspiration from the study of native plant com- munities. Lawns and ornamental trees do not belong in Heem  Parks, instead mixed woodlands were established with herba- ceous underplanting and adjacent wild flower meadows.  

Completed in 1939, the planting plan for De Braak Park  was based on the natural conditions of the soil. Native plants  were used exclusively. An old mere was central to the layout,  creating peaty conditions for planting based on the natural communities of low lying fens.

The 24 hectare Jac.P.Thijssepark is regarded as the archetypal Heem Park. It forms a green corridor along the edge of Amstelveen. The layout is based on a combination of meandering stretches of water with open and closed planting. The footpaths progress through a series of distinct habitats, allowing it to be read like a book of nature.

Source: Bekkers,G (2003) Jac.P.Thijsse Park – designed Dutch landscape, Architectura and Natura

SUMMARY

  Provision should be made within the greenspace hierar-

chy for ecologically functional natural greenspaces and associated habitats

  Ecologically functional habitats can be incorporated into existing parks through new planting or by changing man-

agement techniques

  Ecology parks can be designed based on the selection of

appropriate plant communities and an understanding of their response to landscape conditions

  Local Nature Reserves have an important role to play as

outdoor classrooms for local communities

24 3.4in their own right. In this section, we explore how to maximise the ecological function of woodland Masterplanning Greenway linkages

Greenways are linear wildlife corridors that provide linkages between habitats, and can form habitats

and wetland greenways.

Greenways are linear wildlife corridors that may already exist Wetland Greenways

in the form of woodland belts, overgrown railway lines and  Greenways can also take the form of waterways with associ- waterways, opportunities identified in the context study, or  ated wetland and woodland habitats. Germany's Emscher can be designed as new functional landscape elements23.  Park project in the Ruhr valley pioneered the de-culverting of Greenways can be used to link together habitats and form  engineered waterways, with the re-introduction of wetlands routes from residential areas to larger greenspaces. Water- and buffer strips of ecologically functional meadow and ways can also provide ecological services such as drainage  woodland habitats26. A similar approach has been taken in the to attenuate flooding. As highlighted in Section 3.1, green- UK by the Environment Agency.

ways' design must adhere to basic principles of urban design.  Sealed surfaces can reduce soil moisture and, as is

increasingly the case in the UK, leave low lying areas suscep- Woodland Greenways tible to flooding from excessive run-off. There may therefore In order to reduce car dependency urban housing is increas- be the opportunity to create Sustainable Urban Drainage Sys- ingly likely to incorporate clearly defined pedestrian routes,  tems (SUDS), which can function as wetland habitats. The cycle routes and public transport corridors. This creates  Environment Agency and CIRIA (the Construction Industry the opportunity to integrate these areas within a network of  Research & Information Association) have been actively pro- woodland greenways. Warr ington New Town was a pioneer of moting the use of SUDS27.

this approach, with the successful establishment of ecologi- A good example can be found at Kirchsteigfeld in Berlin. cally functional woodland greenways based on experience  SUDS are common in new German housing schemes for from the Netherlands and Sweden24.  flood alleviation, but they also create buffer strips for habitat

However, an important point to learn from this case  creation. Whilst the width of the buffer may be constrained study is that if the aim is to maximise their function as linear by land use pressure, integration with linear greenspaces of habitats then pedestrian and cycle routes must be excluded  the kind seen at Kirchsteigfeld, and as proposed for New Hall or be well-designed. Recreational routes can be incorporated near Harlow in Essex28 can allow for wider corridors.

as long as they are punctuated by links to surrounding areas  Management is required to maximise habitat potential29. where housing provides informal surveillance. A good ex- Intermittant tributaries can be linked up using swales. Con- ample is the proposed New England Quarter in Brighton (see taminants, for example from surface car parking, may need illustration below). An old railway line is to be improved as a pre-treatment by reedbeds. Tree planting may be required for recreational route whilst also enhancing its value as a Site of bank protection and sediment may require periodic removal. Importance for Nature Conservation25.  

Sources:

1. Scott , D, The greening of Warr ington, Landscape Design
2. Tregay,R & Gustavsson,R (1983) Oakwood's new landscape – designing for nature in the residential environment
3. CPRE, Memorandum to the Parliamentary Select Committee on Transport

Kirchsteigfeld, Berlin

A Sustainable Urban Drainage System

Kichsteigfeld is a 60-hectare urban extension of Potsdam 25

km south west of Berlin. Over 2,600 high-density new homes

have been constructed, following a masterplan that adheres

to recognised European urban design principles30. The in-

volvement of over 25 architects and use of chromatic colour

scheme gives the new town its own distinct identity. In-line

with current best practice surface water is channelled into a

SUDS. The system starts with water draining from courtyards

into swales where it either soaks away, evaporates or is re-

tained within the system. It then flows along verges into minor

streets. It is then collected into a stream that forms part of a

formal linear park from where it flows into a retention basin

before flowing into the drainage network in surrounding rural wetland ecosystems, with planting selected to reflect the pat- area. Each element of the system creates the potential for  tern of water retention.

 Source: Ruano, M (1999) Eco-urbanism, Gustavo Gili

Oakwood, Warr ington New Town

Establishing ecologically functional greenways

Oakwood is one of three residential areas within the Birchwood

district of Warr ington New Town. It was developed in the early

1980s and occupies the former site of an Ordnance Factory.

An entirely new landscape was designed consisting of linked

woodland belts and parks31. These form a web' of greenways

enclosing the new housing. Footpaths and cycleways lead from

the housing to recreational green space and out to the rural

landscape.

The design and planting of these woodland belts aimed to

create structural diversity, with complex patterns used to emu-

late natural mosaics of trees, shrubs and meadow32. Vegetation  SUMMARY

was planted out six years ahead of housing development deliv-

ering a number of benefits:  Greenways are linear wildlife corridors which can provide

linkages between greenspaces and larger areas of habitat

  Less mature trees could be used, minimising costs  They can be either woodland or wetland, based on exist-

  Growth was unhindered during the most vulnerable period ing landscape features or designed as new functional ele-

  Residents moved into a mature and sheltered landscape,  ments

raising land values  Woodland greenways can incorporate pedestrian and

  Vandalism normally associated with new planting was  cycle routes but must adhere to urban design principles in

minimised order to address safety issues

  Wetland greenways can be designed as SUDS in order to Whilst the establishment of designed ecosystems has been  provide ecological services

successful, the greenways' function as pedestrian routes has   Buffer strips associated with SUDS can be integrated with been less so33. The layout resulted in small estates becom- linear greenspaces in order to maximise their habitat po- ing isolated, and the greenways were not way marked or lit.  tential

Some routes have been closed because of vandalism or safety   SUDS require management in order to maximise their issues. In some cases local roads are used by pedestrians be- habitat potential

cause they are the safest and most direct routes.

26 3.5forest. In this section, we explore how street trees can be used to define streets, improve the urban Masterplanning

Street trees

Street trees can be used to create a continuous canopy, creating an experience of living in an urban

environment and provide linkages in habitat networks.

Street trees can form an attractive and functional element of   There may also be opportunities to retain existing mature urban streets, helping to define the character of streets, from  trees. These must, however, be adequately safeguarded dur- boulevards to home zones. Street trees make cities more live-ing development in order to avoid direct damage from equip- able, particularly important given an increasing preference  ment or indirect damage to roots or through soil compaction. for flats and higher density housing, and as we discussed in  Disturbance to the local water table may occur as soil mois- Section 1.2, can add value to property.  ture is depleted, and new forms of drainage may be needed.

Experience from cities such as Berlin, which favour con-

tinuous street tree canopies shows that streets with mature  Street trees, Berlin

tree cover are generally the most popular amongst residents. The Urban Woodland

They also provide important ecological services such as pol-

lution control, air conditioning and noise attenuation.  Most residential and major streets in Berlin are lined with

Planting native species as a continuous canopy will max- trees. In the summer these dominate the character of the imise their habitat potential, particularly for birds and insects. city, providing shade and increasing humidity. The city is now However, some exotic species are better adapted to condi- estimated to have 416,000 street trees, or 79 street trees per tions in the urban environment. Resilience to air pollution is a kilometre of road35. They form linear routes, creating invalu- major factor, as is access to an adequate water supply, suit- able habitat networks for many insects and birds.

ability of root structure for planting close to buildings, and the  When new trees are planted, the species by determined density and maintenance requirements associated with foli- on whether there is already a dominant species prevalent, in age. Some key questions to answer when planning for street  which case the same species is used to fill gaps. New streets trees are therefore34: are usually planted with one of the five most common spe-

cies, which are Lime, Maple, Oak, Plane and Horse Chestnut.   Is there enough space for the tree to grow? These can survive the conditions within the city without ex-

  How will the tree affect the building at maturity? cessive maintenance. All new street trees are planted as semi   How will the tree affect streets and utilities at maturity? mature standards at around 10 years old, as at this age they

  Will foliage cast shadows or brush window panes? are less easily vandalised.

  Will associated drains and soak aways create mainte-

nance problems?

These factors can limit the choice of native species. Guid-

ance is available on the selection of appropriate species from

knowledgeable organisations and urban ecology texts.

In urban areas there is also pressure to plant older and

larger trees to realise design objectives and property values.

Smaller and younger specimens are preferable as they have a

greater opportunity to grow into their surroundings, however,

resilience to vandalism during initial years can be a deciding

factor. In small open spaces a variety of sizes and ages of

trees, planted together with elements of an understorey can

provide visual interest and structural diversity, as demon- Source: Runze und Casper with the Senatsverwaltung für Bau und Wohnungswesen, (1990) strated at Warr ington New Town (Case Study, Section 3.4). Ökologisches Planen und Bauen (Ecological planning and building)

Home Zone Street Trees

Helping to define liveable streets in Germany and Holland

SUMMARY

  Street trees can be used to create a continuous habitats,

whilst making urban neighbourhoods more attractive and providing ecological services

  Tree species must be selected that can survive urban

conditions and avoid excessive maintenance requirements  Selecting native species will maximise their habitat poten-

tial, however, urban conditions favour some exotics

  Planning for street trees requires consideration of water

requirements and the impact on buildings and streets at maturity

  Vandalism can be reduced by planting as semi-mature

standards, however, where possible it is better to plant younger trees

28 4.1tential for a fine grain of habitat mosaics. In this section, we explore how functional habitat mosaics Detailed design

Communal doorstep' spaces Communal doorstep' spaces such as communal courtyards and pocket greenspaces create the po-

can be created, which are responsive to a range of microclimate conditions and provide an experi-

ence of nature on people's doorstep.

Whilst the Communities Plan has established a minimum  funding. This can be demonstrated by the successful court- density of 30 dwellings per hectare, to be sustainable the  yard greening initiatives in Berlin designed to reduce sealed Urban White Paper suggested raising housing densities to at  surfaces (see case study). The configuration of communal least 75 dwellings per hectare1. This is achievable with terrac- spaces can vary considerably, influencing the potential to link es and perimeter blocks of town houses and flats. Reduced  habitats. At Schoneberg in Berlin networks of open courts

car parking and higher plot ratios result in more communal  created by urban blocks allow for continuous areas of habitat. doorstep' spaces, such as courtyards and pocket green- The traditional terraced housing that is typical of industrial spaces. This creates the potential for continuous mosaics  cities such as Manchester limits the opportunities for continu- of habitats, defining spaces and making higher density living ous areas of habitat. The proposed remodelling of the tradi- more attractive.  tional terraced streets of Salford will see the creation of com-

The proximity of buildings to each space will create  munal courtyards from private space, as well as home zone unique microclimate conditions, with varying daylight, wind, streets, creating the potential for larger areas of continuous temperature and moisture levels. This will need to inform  habitat. Limiting factors may include disturbance by residents the selection of plant communities. So, for example, narrow,  and preferences for ornamental exotics.

dark courtyards may resemble conditions on a forest floor.

Designing-in the basic requirements to attract fauna will also Courtyard Greening, Berlin

maximise the opportunities for biodiversity. Rainwater sys-

tems can be designed to sustain wetland habitats and attenu- In Berlin, a Biotope Area Factor (BAF) is calculated based on ate run-off. how much land surface with habitat potential is being lost

Within a masterplan, plots are likely to be built out by  through urban land-use. Compensation is made by consider-

a range of property developers. A mechanism is therefore  ing all suitable wall and roof surfaces as well as better use of required to encourage habitat creation. Recent experience in  the ground level spaces. A tax on drainage from impermeable the new district of Bo01 in Malmo, Sweden provides a novel surfaces encourages the minimisation of sealed surfaces that mechanism for encouraging this (Case Study, Section 4.2).  contribute to runoff. There is advice available on the choice of Post-occupancy, landlords and residents groups can also  species to be planted, but this is not specified, and funding is be encouraged as part of a programme of local support and  available from the Local Authority.

At a local level implementation has various forms2. Most areas are greened' either as they are built or as they are

Wildlife Basics renovated. This allows measures such as the replacement of Food  Sources of nectar, edible nuts,  unnecessarily sealed surfaces. The design is always depend-

seeds and berries ent on the prevalent conditions. However, constant features

Water  Introduce artificial ponds, swales  include: functional space (bike storage, general and recycla-

and rainfall catchments bles bins); trees and nature-like planting or in smaller areas, Cover  Areas of dense tree, shrub and  climbers trained up wires which are then kept away from

tall grass cover, leaves, logs and  eaves; green roofs; paving only on main routes; and use of stones can also provide cover permeable surfaces.

Breeding  Vegetation that protects from elements  Sources:

and freedom from disturbance; introduce  1. tentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/landschafBerlin Department of Urban Development tsplanung/bff/en/ziele.shtml(2004) Biotope Area Factor, http://www.stad artificial sites where necessary 2. Senatsvergreen walls waltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz (1997) Courage to plant

Source: Johnston, J and Newton, J (1993) Building green, London Ecology Unit 3. Runze und Casper with the Senatsverwaltung für Bau und Wohnungswesen, (1990)

Ecological planning and building

Langworthy HMR, Salford 29

Communal remodelling of Victorian terraces

Innovative developer Urban Splash have recently averted the

demolition of over 300 Victorian terraced properties in Salford n

following the collapse of the housing market in the Lang- worthy area. Funded by the Government's Housing Market Renewal programme the proposal is to remodel a complete block of traditional Coronation Street' style terraces. Outrig- ger' kitchen and bathroom extensions into yards are to be re- moved along with the back alleys to create continuous strips of communal garden. Privacy buffer zones' will be planted to delineate each property's private terrace. The roofs will also be completely replaced.

Notably the streets are adjacent to Langworthy Park, bet- ter known locally as Chimney Pot Park, a small but popular  recreational park built on the in-fill site of a former reservoir.  Its planting is typical of Victorian parks in the city, with orna- mental and exotic shrubs and trees laid out within a mani- cured landscape. There have been recent experiments with  reduced mowing of amenity grassland to allow wildflowers to  grow.  

Sources: 1. Birch, A. Salford Sommersault, Building Design, 28th November 2003 2. Wildlife Trusts, Salford Phase I Habitat Survey, 2000-2001

SUMMARY

  Communal doorstep' spaces create the potential for a

mosaic of habitats which respond to varying microclimate conditions

  Plants must be selected to survive in the unique microcli-

mate conditions of each communal space

  An understanding of the basic requirements for attracting

a variety of fauna will enable biodiversity to be maximised· Networks of spaces create opportunities for more con- tinuous areas of habitat

  Traditional forms of housing can be remodelled to create

large, communal spaces with habitat potential

  Developers, residents and landlords can all play a role in

the establishment of habitats

30 4.2respond to the distinctive range of microclimate conditions. In this section, we explore how nature Detaileddesign Green buildings and private spaces

Buildings and private spaces also create the potential for a fine grain of habitat mosaics, selected to

can be encouraged to colonise buildings and private spaces.

Higher density urban forms can be exploited to create habi- and support5.

tats on walls, balconies, roof terraces and decks. As we  Climbing plants can be encouraged to colonise walls, highlighted in Section 4.1, distinct microclimates can be  creating habitats for birds, insects and small mammals6. They found in and around buildings, with varying daylight, wind,  can also enhance the visual appearance of buildings, as well temperature and moisture levels. This requires the selection  as providing cooling, insulation and microclimate moderation. of native plants to be adapted to each distinctive microclimate  Establishing climbing plants generally requires the incor- condition, but may also require reference to better adapted  poration of fixed frames or cable lattices. Plants can either exotic species. grow upwards from containers at the foot of a wall, or cas-

From the outset property developers building out plots  cade down from containers on terraces. A trickle watering

can be encouraged, or even required, to creatively incorporate system may be required, potentially supplied by rainwater. habitat mosaics into buildings and communal spaces.  Modern buildings tend to reduce the amount of potential Recent experience in the new district of Bo01 in Malmo,  nesting sites. Artificial sites may therefore need to be pro- Sweden demonstrates how a scoring system, the Green- vided for bats and birds. There are a range of ways in which space Factor', can successfully encourage creative solu- these can be incorporated into buildings, or alternatively they tions3. The result is a diverse range of habitat mosaics, which can be setup in courtyard habitats. Their location should pro- enhance the courtyards and buildings. vide protection from the elements, ideally being placed north

Private gardens, balconies and roof terraces can also be a of east facing. Species of climbing plants can also provide haven for wildlife, as demonstrated by recent surveys in Lon-habitats.

don4. With the growing popularity of natural gardening' there  English Nature have highlighted the potential role of dis-

is the potential to support households with guidance on native tinctive green roof habitats, claiming that low maintenance flora. At WaterColor in Florida (Case Study, Section 2.3), resi-wild plant gardens on roof tops could make an important dents are provided with a pattern book of native species and  contribution to the survival of Britain's native plants, including support is available from an on-site ecologist. At Hulme in  rare species'7.

Manchester, a community garden centre provides local advice  Whilst the relatively harsh conditions created by green roofs tend to require hardy pioneers, they can attract a range

Integrating Nesting Sites into Buildings of insects and birds. Their main benefit to building occupiers is that they provide natural insulation, rainwater attenuation

Nesting sites   Species  Action and cooling.

There are broadly two forms of green roofs, intensive Open-fronted box   Flycatchers, robins,  Replaces bricks roof gardens and extensive green roofs, with each having ad-

wagtails, blackbirds  vantages and disadvantages (see table). Factors to consider Hole-entrance box Tits    Needs to be removable include load-bearing capacity and waterproofing.

Quarter sphere   House martins  Under eaves and terraces Brown' rubble roofs are gaining popularity as they are Small cavities  -    Remove façade brick(s)  cheaper and relatively low maintenance, making use of ma- Gaps between roof Swifts, bats    Small gap or special tiles terials available on the site and encouraging the existing plant Purpose made bricks Bats     Replaces bricks communities of brownfield sites to colonise them8.

Ledges   Kestrels    Design-in at high level

Source (adapted from):

Johnston,J and Newton,J (1993) Building green, London Ecology Unit

Bo01, Malmo (Sweden) 31

Creative habitat mosaics  

gnBo01 is a new district of Malmo constrland at the city's Wmix taking the forgardens and balconies. A Green Space Fof houses, m of communal courflats esterand n Docks. The housing comprises a terraces, with tyards, with smaller private the ucted on reclaimed actorgreen ' has required space mainly  

each property developer put in place measures to enhance biodiversity and manage rainwater. Every developer had to choose 10 out of 35 Green Points which included:

  At least 50 species of native herbs in the courtyard

  All walls covered with climbing plants

  All roofs are green roofs

  A bird box for every flat

  Food for birds all year round in the courtyard  Hampstead Garden Suburb

  Facades to have swallow nesting facilities  A land trust to preserve character and amenity

  Bat boxes in the courtyard

  A habitat for specified insects in the courtyard Hampstead Garden Suburb was designed as a response to the newly   Courtyard vegetation selected to be nectar giving  constructed Golders Green underground station. Development of the   A 1m2 pond for every 5m2 of sealed area in the courtyard suburb was initiated in 1906 with the acquisition of 243 acres of land   Courtyard amphibian habitats with space for hibernation by the Hampstead Garden Suburb Trust. The vision was "so to lay

  The whole courtyard to consist of semi-natural biotopes out the ground that every tree may be kept, hedgerows duly consid-

  A section of the courtyard to be left to natural succession ered, and the foreground of the distant view preserved, if not as open fields, yet as a gardened district, the buildings kept in harmony with

Developers were also required to establish mechanisms for  the surroundings". The plans placed a particular emphasis on natural long-term management and maintenance. Overall this has re- plot divisions, public gardens and street trees. The need to "preserve

sulted in a mosaic of habitats including green roofs and walls,  the present character and amenities" of the Garden Suburb was rec- wetland retention ponds and courtyard gardens.  ognised early in the process. As a not for profit company, the Hamp- Sources:  stead Garden Suburb Trust administers leaseholds and freeholds and

1. Kruuse,A (2004) English extract from Greenspace Factor, City of Malmo ecologist acts as an estate manager. A ground rent is charged, which is used
2. Beer, A (2001) Greenspace management in Denmark and Sweden, http://

www.map21ltd.com/scan-green/bo01.htm to maintain streets and public spaces. The Trust employs a land- scape consultant who can also help residents with problems involv-

Comparison of Roof Gardens and Green Roofs ing gardens, hedges and trees.

Intensive Roof Garden  Extensive Green Roof Traditional'  Ecological'

Deep soil, irrigation system,  Thin soil, little or no irrigation more favourable conditions  stressful conditions for plants for plant,  

Sources:

Advantages:  Advantages: 1. Hampstead Garden Suburb (2003) Home page, http://www.hgs.org.uk

2. Saint, A et al (1999) London suburbs, Merrell Holberton

 Allows greater plant/habitat  Lightweight SUMMARY

diversity  Suitable for large areas

 Good insulation properties   and 0-300 slope

  High density urban forms create the potential for habitats  Simulates wildlife garden  Low maintenance and

on walls, balconies, roofs, terraces and decks

 Diverse utilisation of the roof   more natural

  Private gardens can suport a wide variety of wildlife

 Often doesn't require

  Plants must be selected to survive in the unique microcli- irrigation and drainage

mate conditions of each location

  Benefits to building occupiers include cooling, insulation, Disadvantages:  Disadvantages:

rainwater management and reduced microclimate effects

 Greater weight loading   Limited choice of plants

  Climbing plants, nesting sites and green roofs each re-

 Requires irrigation and drainage  Usually no access for recreation

quire specific design solutions to achieve the best results

 Higher resulting cost

  A green point' scoring system can be used to encourage Source: Johnston, J and Newton, J (1993) Building green, London Ecology Unit creative design solutions across a neighbourhood

32 5.sourcing over the shorManagement and stewardshipt, medium and long-term. In this section, we explore some of the key issues

Protecting, enhancing and creating opportunities for biodiversity requires careful planning and re-

relating to the management and stewardship of greenspaces and nature reserves.

In this guide we have identified the range of opportunities for   Ongoing management – Opportunities to enhance biodi- biodiversity in sustainable communities. Each opportunity  versity can be maximised by creating more ecologically requires management and resourcing in order to realise their  self-sustaining habitats. The techniques required will need potential, requiring consideration at a number of key stages: to be set out in a management plan4. This will also need to

cover recreational uses. Nature reserves and community

• Planning and design – Designing ecologically functional  forests are likely to require their own management plan to greenspaces requires specific knowledge and expertise.  resolve potentially conflicting uses. This will need to be taken into consideration in the se- Establishing ecologically functional landscapes and lection of appropriate landscape architects. If specific  habitats may initially require more intensive management. habitats and species require protection then it may be  However, they have the potential to reduce maintenance necessary to minimise intrusion and disturbance by  costs over the long-term. This approach requires skilled incorporating buffer areas and imposing access restric- personnel and provision should be made accordingly. tions. Proposals are likely to require approval by the  Where more extensive areas are covered a dedicated Local Authority and statutory consultees. Licenses may  ranger service may be appropriate, also delivering wider be required if species need to be moved (translocated),  community benefits such as educational programmes5. although this should always be a last resort.
  • Long-term resourcing – The resourcing of ongoing man-
• Construction – If specific habitats and species are legally  agement requires consideration from the outset. Revenue protected then they will require consideration as part of  funding can be secured in a number of different ways

the construction process. The timing and extent of each  relating to specific sites or community-wide greenspaces: development phase may require careful planning, related

to seasons and statutory requirements. Site traffic and  1. Land trust – Greenspaces across a whole community earthworks create a particular risk of disturbance and  can be managed by a dedicated charitable trust. This can specific care may need to taken due, for example, to the  be endowed with profits or vested with assets. It can also extent of foraging areas.  help capture future Section 106 contributions. Success-

Ecological features may need to be created at an  ful examples are Hampstead Garden Suburb (see Case early stage. For example, at Warr ington New Town, wood- Study, Section 4.2) and the Milton Keynes Park Trust6.

land areas were planted up to six years in advance (Case  Regional Parks, such as Nene Park in Peterborough, and Study, Section 3.4). Whilst this incurs upfront costs, it  Community Forests such as Marston Vale (Case Study, can add value to properties, can help minimise damage to  Section 3.2) also use this model.

immature vegetation and allows it more time to establish. 2. Service charge – Residents can be required to pay a

Appointment of an on-site ecologist, or ecological  ground rent, essentially a service charge. This approach clerk of works', can help ensure that due consideration is  has been used for more recent attempts to create new given during programming, as employed at Cambourne  communities such as Linden Home's Caterham Barracks near Cambridge1 and as proposed for Portishead Ash- scheme, which has also established a Trust7.

lands, near Bristol (see Case Study). Advice may also be   3. Partnerships – Partnerships can be established with available from local Wildlife Trusts2, the RSPB, Biological  organisations with the knowledge and skills to manage Records Centres3 and Community Forest projects. reserves and greenspaces. At Cambourne a wildlife trust

will manage the community's eco-park, with residents

Portishead Ashlands, Bristol

Greenfield new community sponsors protection, mitigation  33 and compensation  

Ashlands is an 182 hectare brownfield site east of the town  

of Portishead. It was once an ash tip for the Central Electric-

ity Generating Board (CEGB). Outline planning consent was

granted in 1999 for development of the site by a consortium

of housebuilders11. A planning requirement is the adoption

and management of the adjacent 40 hectares of land fronting

onto the Severn Estuary as a wildlife reserve.

The Severn estuary's foreshore a protected habitat for

migratory and wading birds. It is designated as an SSSI, EU

Special Protection Area and as a wetland of international

importance' under the Ramsar Convention12. The foreshore

nature reserve' area therefore requires specific protection.

The boundary of this area has been designed with rhynes to

restrict access and create buffer spaces. The need to safe-

guard this area is to be communicated through interpretation

signage. This will be supplemented by way-marks, board-

walks and bird hides in order to create interest.

The aim of the wider reserve is two-fold: 1) to compen-

sate for the loss of habitats as a result of development and, 2) to enhance the quality and range of habitats. The reserve will contain a series of habitats including wetlands, hay

meadows and raised pastures. Native species have been

selected to create new habitats, which reflect the local char-

acter. The site will also form a receptor for protected species  Sources:

translocated from the housing area, including great crested  1. BBC Bristol (2003) http://www.bbc.co.uk/bristol/content/green/2003/03/20/porNurturing nature around Portisheadtishead_wildlife.shtml

newts.  2. Landmark Consultants (2003) Portishead Quays Wildlife Reserve - Design and Implementation

and local businesses contributing to overheads8.

4. Local taxation – A local tax hypothecated to communi-

ties that benefit from greenspaces. At Wimbledon Com- SUMMARY

mon in London, a 1871 Act of Parliament transferred land

to the Conservators of Wimbledon Common' who collect   Designing and managing ecologically functional green-

a tax from households within three quarters of a mile.  spaces requires specific knowledge and expertise

The tax is based on proximity and Council Tax band (vary-  Habitats and species protection will require consideration ing from Band A £13 to Band H £140 )9.  during the construction process and an ecological clerk

of works to manage the process

 Community stewardship – Stewardship is an important   Habitat and species protection may require buffer areas long-term objective10. It can deliver tangible benefits,  and access restrictions helping to ensure that amenities respond to local needs,   Establishing ecologically functional habitats requires more dissuading vandalism and reducing management costs.  intensive management and investment during the early Nurturing stewardship requires a genuine feeling of local  years

ownership and control. To realise these benefits active   The techniques required to achieve this need to be set out community participation must be facilitated at agreed  in a management plan, which will also need to resolve stages, which can include design, ongoing management  potentially conflicting uses

and maintenance. Trusts are a particularly effective way   An on-site ranger service can deliver wider community

of involving local communities in decision-making.  benefits, including management of educational pro-

Fostering stewardship amongst the younger gen- grammes

eration is particularly important. This can be achieved   Long-term resourcing requires consideration from the through the support of projects and clubs associated with  outset and can be secured in a number of different ways, greenspaces, as demonstrated by Benwell Nature Park in  dependant on the circumstances and type of green space Newcastle (Case Study, Section 1.3). The participation of   Community stewardship can help to ensure amenities residents may also be required to maximise the opportu- respond to local needs, dissuade vandalism, reduce man- nities for biodiversity in communal doorstep' spaces.  agement costs and further educational aims

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http://www3.iclei.org/egpis/egpc-136.html

Introduction and Design Principles - pages 4 to 9 15) Ville de Rennes (1997) Project urbain de Beauregard,

1. ODPM (2003) Sustainable communities – building for the future http://www.ville-rennes.fr/index.php?rub=224
2. ODPM (2004) Creating sustainable communities - greening the Thames Gateway 16) Wellingborough Borough Council (2004) Wellingborough East
3. DEFRA (2002) Working with the grain of nature: a biodiversity strategy for England,  http://www.wellingborough.gov.uk/business/weast.asp http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/ewd/biostrat/ 17) Matrix Partnership (2003) Wellingborough East: Development framework,
4. Howard, E. Tomorrow: A peaceful path to real reform, 1898 (republished 2003)  Supplementary Planning Guidance
5. Wilson , E.O (editor) (1990) Biodiversity, National Academy Press, USA 18) Huggett,R.J (1998) Fundamentals of biogeography, Routledge
6. UK Government (1994), Biodiversity - The UK action plan, HMSO 19) English Nature (2004) Natural area profiles,
7. Tudge,C (1991) Global ecology, Oxford University Press http://www.english-nature.org.uk/science/natural/role.htm
8. Wheater, P.C (1999) Urban habitats, Routledge Press 20) Joint Nature Conservation Committee (2002) Local Biodiversity Action Plans, UK Biodiversity
9. Chapman, J.L. and M.J.Reiss (1992) Ecology – principles and applications,  Action Plan, http://www.ukbap.org.uk

Cambridge University Press 21) Countryside Council for Wales, http://www.ccw.gov.uk/generalinfo/ - see landscape

10. See 8 – Chapman et al (1992) 22) Scott ish Nature Heritage, http://www.snh.org.uk/
11. Girardet,H (1996) The Gaia atlas of cities, Gaia Books Limited 23) Joint Nature Conservancy Council (2000) Guidance on the interpretation of the broad habitat
12. DEFRA (2004) Life-support – incorporating biodiversity into community strategies,  classification, http://www.jncc.gov.uk/communications/Report307/Contents.htm http://www.defra.gov.uk/wildlife-countryside/ewd/lifesupport.pdf 24) Rodwell, J. S., ed. (1991) British Plant Communities, Cambridge Press
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14. Johnston,J and Newton,J (1993) Building green, London Ecology Unit 26) See 22 – Wheater.P.C. (1999) and Johnston,J and Newton,J (1993) Building green,
15. Hough,M (1995) Cities and natural process, Routledge London Ecology Unit
16. See 13 – Johnston et al (1993) 27) Mays,V, Walk on the wild side, Landscape Architecture, December 2003
17. See 12 - Trees for cities (2003) 28) Urban Design Associates (2003) Patterns for place-making,
18. BRE (1990) Climate and site development – parts 1-3, Digest 350 http://www.arvida.com/watercolor/
19. See 14 – Hough, M (1995) 29) Oxford,M (2000) Developing naturally, ALGE and also habitat and species specific guidance
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21. Jorgensen, A (2001) Why is it important to encourage nature and wildlife near the home? 30) See 29 – Oxford,M (2000)

http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/papers/natben.htm 31) Landmark Consultants (2003) Portishead Quays Wildlife Reserve - Design and Implementation

22. See 20 - Jorgensen, A (2001) 32) English Nature (2004) Orton SSSI - Notification under section 28C of the Wildlife
23. See 20 - Jorgensen, A (2001) and English Nature (2004) Nature for people,  and Countryside Act 1981, http://www.english-nature.org.uk

Research Report 567 33) Hampton, http://www.cygnetpark.co.uk/

24. Llewelyn-Davies (2000) Urban design compendium, English Partnerships and the Housing

Corporation Masterplanning - pages 18 to 27

25. Dunnett.N, Swanwick.C and Woolley.H, Improving urban parks, play areas and open spaces,  1) English Nature et al, Delivering sustainable communities – a joint statement on the need for Urban research report, DTLR, May 2002 green infrastructure in Milton Keynes and South Midlands, February 2004
26. RSPB (2003) Greenspace and physical activity promotion 2) English Nature (2003) Accessible natural greenspace – Standards in towns and cities,
27. See 13 – Johnston et al (1993) and National Urban Forestry Unit (1998) Trees matter! The  Report No. 526

benefits of trees & woods in towns 3) Llewelyn Davies and Greater London Authority (2001) Guidance on producing open space

28. University of Washington (1998) Trees in business districts: positive effects on consumer  strategies and Llewelyn-Davies (2000) Urban design compendium, English Partnerships and the behaviour, Centre for Urban Horticulture, Human dimensions of the urban forest, Fact Sheet 5,  Housing Corporation http://www.cfr.washington.edu/research.envmind/ 4) Hough,M (1995) Cities and natural process, Routledge and Safe City Committee of Toronto
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30. Wilson , E.O. (1992) The Diversity of Life, Penguin Books Committee and the Planning and Development Committee
31. Laesso and Iveson (2003) referred to in English Nature (2004) Nature for people,  5) Overvecht (2001) Overvecht district atlas, http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/atlas/ Research Report 567, p.123 6) Overvecht (2003) Green structure plan, http://www.making-places.info/overvecht/potential/
32. See 24 – Dunnett et al (2002), Federation of City Farms and Community Gardens,  7) Chelsfield (2004) Stratford City – political briefing, http://www.chelsfield.co.uk/home.htm http://www.farmgarden.org.uk/ 8) Chelsfield Stanhope LCR (2004) Stratford City - open space strategy, final draft
33. Mile End Park, http://www.mileendpark.co.uk/ 9) National Community Forest Partnership, http://www.communityforest.org.uk/

10) Forest of Marston Vale, http://www.marstonvale.org/

Context Study - pages 10 to17 11) Berlin Digital environmental atlas (1995) Age structure and investory of the forests, Depart-

1. Gibson CWD (1998) Barnfield: red data. The values artificial habitats have for uncommon  ment of Urban Development, http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/umwelt/umweltatlas/ei504.htm invertebrates. English Nature Research Report No 273 12) Senatsverwaltung für Stadtentwicklung und Umweltschutz (1994) Ein neuer Umgang mit dem
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4. European Academy of the Urban Environment (2001) Emscher Park International Building Exhibi-14) Marston Vale Surface Waters Group, The Surface Waters Plan, June 2002

tion, http://www.eaue.de/winuwd/137.htm 15) The Forest of Marston Vale (2002) Investing in the success of the forest of Marston Vale

5. Berlin Department of Urban Development (2004) Biotope Area Factor,  16) Kendle,T (1997) Urban nature conservation: landscape management in the urban countryside,

35

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