TCPA - Sustainable energy by design

sustainable energy by design

a TCPA by design guide for sustainable communities

sustainable energy by design:

a guide for sustainable communities

The Town and Country Planning Association (TCPA) is an independent charity working to improve the art and science of town and country planning. The TCPA puts social justice and the environment at the heart of policy debate and inspires government, industry and campaigners to take a fresh perspective on major issues, including planning policy, housing, regeneration and climate change. Our objectives are to:

¥ secure a decent, well designed home for everyone, in

a human-scale environment combining the best features of town and country

¥ empower people and communities to in uence decisions that affect them

¥ improve the planning system in accordance with the principles of sustainable development.

The TCPA wishes to acknowledge the input and

 nancial support of English Partnerships, CABE and

the Countryside Agency, and the nancial support of the Pilkington Energy Ef ciency Trust. The inclusion of a case study or mention of a company or product in this guide does not imply endorsement.

This Guide has been prepared by Robert Shaw from the TCPA, and Jonathan Marrion and Robert Webb from XCO2 for the TCPA. Assistance and comment was provided by

Dan Epstein from English Partnerships, Elanor Warwick from CABE, David Turrent from ECD Architects Ltd and Christine Tudor from the Countryside Agency. Many others also provided assistance with case studies and images.

contents

foreword  02 1 sustainable energy?

what is climate change and 0305 2 Tophf oissulssietcacyitnio aanb lnien tderon edl[a]uegcyge. si scll ima at ti eo cnha  nf go e r a  nd the benefits  0608

sustainable energy

This section highlights the key policies and legislation

that are encouraging the rapid increase in the use of

sustainable energy.

3 sustainable energy

how to fund and deliver  0918 This section describes how to develop a sustainable

energy plan and select the appropriate funding and

delivery mechanisms.

1. creating a sustainable energy plan: why and how an energy action plan and targets can help deliver sustainable energy.
2. funding sustainable energy: an overview of the funding sources and mechanisms available for delivering sustainable energy commercially.
3. energy services: packages of measures to increase energy efficiency and use of renewable energies.
4. community input: the role of communities in delivering sustainable energy.

4 hthorwou tgohimdpesleigmneannt dsudsetaveinloapbmleeennte rgy 1735

This section is structured around the design and

development process, and shows how sustainable energy

can be incorporated into new development.

1. reducing energy demand:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city scale

¥ at the street/block scale

¥ at the building scale.

2. efficient energy supply:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city and street/block scales

¥ at the building scale.

3. renewable energy generation:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city and street/block scales

¥ at the building scale.

5 tTinehfoiscr msheanctitooionnl oopnrg ocvoi ie sdtes ins  g a. n overview of the low- and  3644

zero-carbon technologies that are available, including

foreword

The aim of this guide is to show how sustainable energy can be integrated into the planning,

design and development of new and existing communities. The guide is provided for local authorities, developers, investors and managers in the public and private sectors.

It promotes opportunities for sustainable energy and considers the role of the planning system, communities, other stakeholders and delivery bodies.

The phrase sustainable communities here brings together the need to tackle housing shortages or market failure by providing new housing and the necessary accompanying infrastructure while at the same time reducing dangerous greenhouse gas emissions. The TCPA first coined the phrase in 2001 when it called for a new programme to meet these varied needs of the country in terms of society, the economy, and the environment.

This is the second in this series of guides by the TCPA addressing different aspects of creating communities that, taken together, are aimed at ensuring that sustainable communities will be genuinely sustainable1.

Homes contribute around a third of the UK s CO2 emissions; all buildings contribute a half of emissions. When transport is also factored in, it becomes clear that energy demand and supply are, and can be, heavily influenced by the built environment. Rising to the challenge of meeting housing need, while reducing emissions of greenhouse gases, demands action from governments and their agencies and all players in the development process, including those who will eventually live in new housing.

There is a growing body of examples of low-carbon or carbon-neutral developments from across the UK and from abroad. Some focus on reducing energy demand, others include new or more established energy generating technologies. Often they include both. In other places, innovative mechanisms have been used to deliver low-carbon energy generation and supply networks

on a citywide scale.

The public sector often takes the lead in initiating projects, but many excellent examples are led by developers. The most effective projects have been those where partnerships build capacity for sustainable development.

This guide demonstrates what is being, and what could be, done today. It focuses on the role of design, architecture and planning in the context of sustainable development and creating low-carbon communities. The case studies show how different low- and zero-carbon energy technologies can be integrated into different types of development and highlight the financial mechanisms that have made this possible. The guide also points to where more information can be found.

I would like to thank English Partnerships, CABE, the Countryside Agency and the Pilkington Energy Efficiency Trust for their support for this publication.

Robert Shaw, the TCPA s Sustainable Development Policy Officer, has managed this project and contributed to some key aspects of the guide.

Gideon Amos MA RIBA MRTPI Director

Town and Country Planning Association

what is climate change and sustainable energy?

This section introduces climate change and the benefits of sustainable energy.

1

introduction

Human activities are increasing

the amount of carbon dioxide and other so-called greenhouse gases that are entering the atmosphere. This is leading to a warming of the planet and resulting in changes to the climate. One way to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases is to use low- or zero-carbon sustainable energy sources. Sustainable energy networks can supply low-carbon, efficient energy to homes and communities.

The climate change imperative

There is almost unanimous agreement among scientists that climate change is a fact; this is something the Government also accepts. Geological records show that our climate has changed greatly over time, but current concerns relate to quickening, human-induced change brought about mainly by burning fossil fuels.

Climate scenario models suggest that the likely impact of climate change on the UK will be average temperature increases of up to 5¡C, while summer rain is likely to decrease. Incidences of extreme weather events, including flash floods and heatwaves, are likely to become more common2. It is now generally accepted that we have around ten years to make real progress towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions if we are to avoid catastrophic climate change.

Climate change is a consequence of what is commonly known as the greenhouse effect . Greenhouse gases (GHG) permit incoming solar radiation to reach the earth s surface unhindered but absorb the outward flow, storing some of the heat in the atmosphere. This produces a net warming of the surface.

This heat will eventually return to space. However, the increasing atmospheric concentrations of gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, are causing the average temperature of the earth to increase, resulting in changes to the climate.

The case for sustainable energy

The standard form, location and density to which our homes and communities are constructed plays a crucial role in determining energy demand. While energy performance of new buildings is steadily improving, due mainly to successive revisions of the building regulations (see diagram opposite) and use of sustainability standards, it remains a long way from the zero-carbon goal required by the climate change imperative. On top of this, most

of our energy is supplied in much the same way as it has

4  The infrared radiation  is bouced round the

3  The earth s atmosphere  atmosphere until it

  can now absorb the   returns back to space  radiation which causes

  a rise in temperature

1  Solar radiation 2  The earth emits the  penetrates the   heat in the form of   earth s atmosphere  infrared radiation

  and warms up the

  surface of the earth

6

Each line refers to a specific model and

5 scenario from the IPCC Special Report on emissions scenarios (SRES)

4 Envelope of modelling under varying assumptions of climate sensitivity

3 Envelope for the 35 scenarios of

the Special Report on emissions scenario

2

1 0

2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100

Year

Climate change

Above top: The greenhouse effect .

Above: Scenarios for global average temperature change.

Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

been for the last century. Electricity is produced mainly by fossil fuels in large centralised power plants and distributed via national and local grids; this is a system which results in enough energy being wasted each year to power all the buildings in the UK.

Current building standards and the energy generation and supply system will not enable us to meet the requirements of government energy or sustainable development policy3/4 . Short- and longer-term changes are needed to both.

All stakeholders will benefit if the energy system is transformed from the current high demand, carbon intensive, constantly supplied system to one which is how demand, clean and decentralised (see box opposite for benefits of sustainable energy).

Benefits of sustainable energy

For the developer:

¥ more favourable response to development proposals from planners and development partners

¥ improved reputation with local authorities and other development partners leading to increased development opportunities

¥ reduced risk from future legislation (for example, through the EU Building Directive)

¥ economic benefits such as enhanced capital allowances.

For the occupier:

¥ lower running costs for the occupants of buildings as heating, cooling and/or electricity bills decrease

¥ more natural light providing a greater sense of wellbeing

¥ warmer homes leading to fewer deaths from hypothermia, which kills thousands of vulnerable people every winter.

For the local community:

¥ economic benefits through the use of local materials and labour (for example, biomass)

¥ increased sense of community through the shared use of renewable technology

¥ assistance towards reaching local, regional and national carbon saving, air quality and renewables targets

¥ opportunity to invest in or part-own an energy company.

Source: London Renewables5

160

Space heating

140

Hot water

120

Lighting and appliances 100

80

60

40

20

0

Victorian Typical 02 Building 06 Building

Regs Regs

Energy consumption in the built environment Source: XCO2

CO2

Large energy demand

1  Large centralised energy supply with vast distribution    losses serving a large domestic energy demand.

Small  Demand-side energy

demand efficiency

2  Reduced energy demand using passive measures to  increase energy efficiency and therefore a lower

  centralised energy supply.

Supply-side efficiency

Small energy demand

Renewable energy supply

3  A small centralised energy supply due to reduced energy  demand and energy being supplied using renewables

  and efficient technology sustainable energy.

What is sustainable energy?

The diagram above shows the steps to be taken to achieve a decentralised, more efficient and flexible energy infrastructure over the coming decades. Reducing energy demand through passive efficiency measures, such as better insulation or

low energy lighting, is usually the most cost-effective strategy. It should be considered as the crucial first step towards reducing GHG emissions. Efficient and renewable supply

of energy from a range of complementary low- and zero- carbon technologies reduces further the energy required

from the inefficient national grid.

No generating plant operates 100% of the time. A system that relies on its energy from more than one source inherently has more stability of supply, regardless of the fact that the individual technologies within the system are intermittent. These steps are explained in greater detail in Section 4

of this guide.

Source: XCO2

policy and legislation for sustainable energy

This section highlights the key policies and legislation that are encouraging the rapid increase in the use of sustainable energy.

2

policy background

Sustainable development is now an organising principle in decision making at all levels, from the global to the local. In the UK this is reflected in the preparation of the statutory strategies that guide all development. The private sector is also increasingly seeing that development based on sustainability principles makes sound business sense.

A range of policies and legislation are influencing the planning and development of sustainable communities, including implementation of sustainable energy.

Sustainability standards 9

A number of voluntary standards aim to raise the quality

of new development. These include: EcoHomes/BREEAM, Z-Squared and energy standards from the Association for Environment Conscious Building (AECB) and the Energy Saving Trust (EST). The Government is currently preparing a national standard called the Code for Sustainable Homes. The code, due in early 2006, is likely to bring together many of the existing standards and will set the direction of future revisions to the building regulations.

Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act 200410 Whereas previously the building regulations could only address sustainable development indirectly, for example via Part L (energy efficiency), this Act will allow future revisions to address this issue directly.

DTI Micro-generation Strategy 11

This integrated strategy is being prepared and will replace and expand ClearSkies with subsidies and incentives.

Planning policy guidance and statements (PPG/S)12 International  PPS set out central government policy on a range of

planning issues. Of particular relevance to sustainable Kyoto Protocol6 energy are PPS1 and PPS22. The former sets out core

This is an international agreement to reduce greenhouse  planning objectives while the latter describes how gas (GHG) emissions. The UK has committed to a 12.5% planning should be used to deliver renewable energy. reduction by 2012.

EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 7 Coming into force in early 2006, the European energy rating scheme for buildings requires an energy rating certificate to be displayed in all public buildings. The aim is to give building owners and occupiers an incentive to improve energy performance.

National

Securing the Future:

UK Sustainable Development Strategy 3

Published in March 2005, the strategy sets out five principles for sustainable development with a focus on environmental limits. It also identifies four priority areas: sustainable consumption and production, climate change, natural resource protection and sustainable communities.

Our Energy Future: Creating a Low Carbon Economy This 2003 energy white paper sets a target of generating 10% of UK energy by renewable technologies by 2010 and 15% by 2020. Other policies include creating an energy system that ensures security of supply and affordable warmth, as well as an aspirational target of a 60% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050.

Regional

Regional spatial strategies (RSS)

RSS are documents prepared by regional assemblies in England (a spatial development strategy is prepared by the Mayor in London). They draw on national policy and provide a broad development strategy for the region over a 1520 year period. Together with local development frameworks (LDFs) they constitute the statutory Development Plan.

A growing number of assemblies are including sustainable energy and climate change policies in their RSS (for example, see the case studies on London overleaf).

Local

LDFs, or unitary development plans (UDPs) in London,

are prepared by local authorities and provide the framework 4 for development at the local level. They are the principal

consideration in determining planning applications. LDFs

comprise statutory development plan documents (DPDs)

and other advice and guidance, such as supplementary

planning documents (SPDs) and area action plans.

Local authorities must also set out how communities

can become involved in the process through statements

of community involvement .

UK Building Regulations, Part L8

Regulations control the quality and performance of new buildings. The recent revision to Part L (energy efficiency) will require a 20% improvement on current energy standards in buildings when it becomes live in mid-2006.

Prescriptive development plan policies are increasingly being used to deliver climate change and sustainable energy objectives. The London Borough of Merton, for example, requires certain developments to incorporate on-site renewable energy generating capacity (see case study overleaf).

Planning for energy in London

London leads the way in planning for sustainable energy at regional level. Published in 2004, the Energy Strategy13 adopts an approach to energy similar to that used in this guide: use less energy, use renewable energy and supply energy efficiently. Policies and targets include:

¥ 665GWh of renewable electricity and 280GWh of heat capacity by 2010

¥ every London borough to have at least one zero-carbon development by 2010

¥ use of energy service companies (ESCos) to deliver a more sustainable, decentralised energy network

¥ improve energy efficiency in housing by setting minimum SAP (standard assessment procedure) targets.

The spatial development strategy (the London Plan)14

was adopted in February 2004. It provides the statutory framework for delivering targets set out in the energy strategy, including policies requiring major developments to show how they intend to generate a proportion of the site s energy needs from renewables. This will be supported by supplementary planning guidance (due 2006) which will set out broad guidelines to define locations for stand-alone schemes and set assessment criteria. It will also include work on feasibility.

A number of other bodies also support sustainable energy. London Renewables informs the adoption of targets and promotes action to meet them. A toolkit was published

to help developers and their design teams to achieve

these targets5. The independent London Energy Partnership brings together sectors and organisations to deliver energy action more effectively.

More information: www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies

Willow Lane Industrial Estate: London Borough of Merton

Developed by Chancerygate, this 4,500m2 speculative commercial development comprises 10 units in a built-up suburban location. In order to comply with the Merton s on-site generation planning policy, the developer included 10 small-scale wind turbines and 5kWp of photovoltaic (PV) panels. This is the first timethat a developer has been compelled to respond to a prescriptive renewable energy policy.

London Borough of Merton and Cadogan (the developer s chosen consultants) established the proposal s baseline energy usage using Energy Efficiency in Industrial Buildings Sites Guide 18 and Benchmarking Tool for Industrial Buildings Guide 81. They then calculated a carbon footprint. The London Renewables toolkit5 has subsequently been developed which can assist with this process.

CO2 emissions have been reduced by 17.5% with renewable energy contributing over 7%.

Key lessons:

¥ this successful development was achieved via a flexible, holistic and consultative approach from the council and the developer

¥ incorporating energy saving measures (condensing boilers, intelligent lighting and passive stack ventilation) significantly reduced the size of the renewable systems needed and therefore the cost of complying with the policy

¥ in line with ODPM thinking, it was agreed that the policy should be interpreted through carbon emissions rather than energy usage

¥ as a speculative development, it was difficult to establish a baseline energy/carbon footprint; this approach ruled out water heating technologies that might normally be used to preheat water for central heating, showers and so on.

More information: www.merton.gov.uk

London Borough of Merton

Merton s Unitary Development Plan (as amended by the Government Inspector and approved in November 2003) stipulates that the council will encourage the energy efficient design of buildings and their layout and orientation on site. All new non-residential development above a threshold of 1,000 sqm will be expected to incorporate renewable energy production equipment to provide at

least 10% of predicted energy requirements.

In approving the policy the Government Inspector said that there was unambiguous national and regional support for the approach adopted by Merton.

At least 50 other local planning authorities in England and Wales are now following suit with most, such as Croydon, also including residential development. Planners have so far found developers to be very positive towards implementing the policy.

More information: www.merton.gov.uk, www.croydon.gov.uk

how to fund

and deliver sustainable energy

This section describes how to develop a sustainable energy plan and select the appropriate funding and delivery mechanisms.

1. creating a sustainable

energy plan

2. funding sustainable energy
3. energy services

3

4. community input

1. creating a sustainable energy plan

The approach to implementing case studies

sustainable energy is broadly

similar no matter where a site is,  Climate change strategy:

or the nature of the development.  Bristol City Council

An energy plan, prepared by the  Bristol s Climate Protection and Sustainable Energy

local planning authority with the Strategy and Action Plan contains a target of reducing involvement of stakeholders, allows GHG emissions by 60% on 2000 levels by 2050, with a

for energy options to be developed range of actions for the council, local businesses, community

groups and individuals. The target was set in Bristol s

on an area-wide basis. community strategy which was published in 2003. It

identified tackling climate change as a priority for the city.

An energy plan can be prepared as part of a wider community, climate change or carbon reduction strategy, or as a stand-alone document. If given a spatial planning focus, and subject to appropriate community involvement, the aim should be to adopt it as part of an LDF or SPD. The objectives will be to: facilitate delivery of energy and GHG reduction targets, identify priorities for action and consider principal opportunities for sustainable energy.

Stage 1: Involve stakeholders

The lead is likely to be taken by the local authority planning department, bringing together other departments, elected members, developers, government offices, local authority support programmes, energy suppliers and communities.

Stage 2: Integrate the plan

Those co-ordinating the preparation of the plan should consider how energy fits in with and can contribute to

other council objectives such as growth, raising construction standards, and GHG emission reduction or renewable energy targets. The plan should review demand and emissions of existing and proposed development, the potential to use existing infrastructure, and renewable energy sources15.

Stage 3: Develop options

Partners should use this information to develop options, including consideration of financial implications, technical viability and implementation mechanisms (see Sections 4 and 5). They should also consider national tools such as landscape character assessments, and national landscape and other designations of material consideration.

The public sector, including agencies such as English Partnerships and the Housing Corporation, is increasingly setting development standards for its own buildings. This sector s strategies should be considered as part of developing an energy strategy.

Stage 4: Finalise strategy

Stakeholder workshops or similar events should be used

to finalise the delivery-focused strategy. Arrangements for monitoring and reviewing the plan should be established and adequately resourced. As a minimum, the published strategy should have senior level support within the local authority.

A number of factors supported development of the strategy:

¥ high level corporate support for tackling climate change, and involvement of as many departments as possible

¥ proper community and stakeholder consultation

¥ linkages with other council priorities and to regional strategies and national agendas

¥ identifying first the actions which would be the most cost effective and quickly deliverable, but also identifying longer term priorities and awareness-raising initiatives.

More information: www.bristol-city.gov.uk/climatechange

Energy action plan 2005 to 2020: Kirklees Council

The Kirklees Council Energy Action Plan addresses energy issues as part of the community strategy and directly supports its environment policy framework. The framework requires the council to implement actions to reduce GHG emissions, and to increase the proportion of energy generated by renewable sources. The action plan will be achieved by:

¥ raising awareness

¥ becoming more energy efficient

¥ providing more renewable energy through embedded generation or purchase

¥ trading emissions to enable contraction and convergence

¥ adapting and preparing for the impacts of climate change.

The action plan sets out what needs to be done in order

to meet the targets. It also includes timescales, the partners involved and a set of performance indicators, as well as an analysis of the financial implications of different scenarios for meeting emission reduction targets. Scenarios range from buying carbon reductions on the international markets through to energy efficiency and procurement

of renewable energy.

Once complete the aim is to adopt the relevant targets and actions contained within the action plan into the LDF. It will also consider preparing an SPD to provide best practice guidance to support planning policies.

More information: www.kirklees.gov.uk

2. funding sustainable energy

The cost of sustainable energy technologies is coming down, but they remain expensive to install. While funding sources are available, they are not significant. A whole-life approach to funding sustainable energy needs to be adopted so

that some of the long-term financial benefits can be built into the planning stage.

There are many factors influencing which sustainable energy measures and technologies are suited to particular developments (these are discussed in Sections 4 and 5). Cost both capital and revenue will be a crucial factor. Information and advice is available to assist with costing sustainable energy options5. It is crucial that funding and project priorities are set from the outset through an energy action plan.

The capital costs for the inclusion of sustainable energy options can in part be off-set. Some grants are available and these are discussed below, as are options for commercial implementation. Higher sale prices for properties on the basis of lower running costs is another option. Introduction of the energy rating scheme for buildings will create a market for more energy efficient buildings and increasing inclusion of micro-generation technologies within buildings means that some contribution from purchasers could be expected.

However, many purchasers are already financially stretched due to high house prices and so alternatives should be considered. If development teams are aware from the beginning of the need to include sustainable energy as part of a proposal there will be more chance that this could be reflected in the price paid for the land. In cases where the sale of land has already been agreed, or a price fixed, a landowner may be flexible as to when they receive payments for the land. In both cases the burden of increased capital costs for the developer or purchaser is removed or significantly reduced. The remaining residual cost will need to be provided by stakeholders or the developer.

This section does not provide a comprehensive list of available funding; rather it gives examples and a flavour of where more information can be found. For a funding database visit the Energy Saving Trust website (www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings/funding/database).

Energy-specific funding sources

¥ Defra s Energy Crops Scheme (www.defra.gov.uk/erdp/schemes/energy/default.htm).

¥ The current Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) capital grant schemes (Clear Skies and the Major PV Demonstration Programme) are due to end in March 2006. They will be replaced by the Low Carbon Buildings Programme. This will focus on a smaller number of large-scale projects, together with some assistance for smaller-scale individual and community projects16.

¥ Energy efficiency is supported through schemes such as Warm Front. The Carbon Trust and Energy Saving Trust also provide support programmes, such as Homes Energy Efficiency Schemes or Innovation Funding17.

¥ The Enhanced Capital Allowance scheme (www.eca.gov.uk) provides businesses with tax incentives if they invest in certain low-carbon technologies18.

¥ The Renewables Obligation (www.dti.gov.uk) requires power suppliers to purchase a proportion of energy from renewable sources. For each megawatt the producer receives a certificate (ROC), which can be traded.

Non energy-specific funding sources

¥ The European Union makes grants available for research

and implementation. For example, Concerto is a major new EU initiative to help local communities demonstrate the benefits of integrating sustainable energy on a community scale. The Energie Helpline UK (www.dti.gov.uk/ent/energie) is part of an EU-wide network to assist in the delivery of a number of European funding programmes, including the Sustainable Energy Systems thematic priority of Framework Programme 6 and Intelligent Energy Europe.

Charitable and small grants for voluntary and community groups

¥ Lottery funding Big Lottery Fund (www.biglotteryfund.org.uk).

¥ New Deal for Communities Community-led regeneration programme (www.ndfc.co.uk).

¥ The Neighbourhood Renewal Fund provides support for projects tackling deprivation in the most deprived neighbourhoods (www.neighbourhood.gov.uk).

Sources of private finance, such as from banks

or companies

¥ Triodos Bank only finances projects with social and environmental benefits (www.triodos.co.uk).

¥ The Co-operative Bank is a customer-owned UK bank with an ethical focus, and also runs a Community Dividend Investment Foundation (www.co-operativebank.co.uk).

¥ Shell Springboard funds commercially viable business ideas that tackle climate change (www.shellspringboard.org).

3. energy services

Energy services are a package

of energy efficiency measures, advice, supply of energy and access to grants and finance. Ideally this should be provided by one company. Benefits can include increased capital investment in energy services and efficiency by levering in private finance, increased revenue, reduced bills, improved comfort or health for residents and reduced management costs.

These benefits are important because renewable energy

can be expensive and grants are limited. In many cases it

is unlikely that technology-specific funding will be available to help developers meet prescriptive planning policies or more stringent building regulations.

The Local Government Act 2000 created a power enabling local authorities to set up local energy service companies (ESCos) which, on their own or in partnership, can offer energy saving measures or low-carbon solutions to home owners

or businesses. The use of energy services is increasingly demonstrating that sustainable energy projects can be delivered commercially (as outlined in the case studies in this section)

as part of a co-ordinated strategy involving public, private

and voluntary sectors. Any individual or organisation can

seek funding for or implement sustainable energy. However, an ESCo can be useful for co-ordinating the whole process and is particularly suited to delivering sustainable energy

on a larger scale or as part of a network.

Woking Borough Council uses an ESCo to design, finance, build and operate affordable, low-carbon, renewable power and heat sources, and to promote energy efficiency to the local community in ways that stack-up financially. The ESCo has responsibility for delivering energy services from the primary energy plant and infrastructure. The owners/ occupiers of the properties become customers of the

ESCo which meters, bills and collects revenue from them.

Less ambitious ESCo initiatives are also delivering significant energy efficiency and energy generation capacity. The Association of UK Energy Agencies (AUKEA) has been set up to support energy agencies around the country19.

For example, the Leicester Energy Agency leases solar panels (photovoltaic and passive) to local residents through

a solar rental scheme.

There is a role for developers, supported by a local authority, and other public and private sector organisations to initiate the set up of an ESCo. Opportunities and partners should

be identified as part of a local authority initiated energy plan or similar.

Energy services companies (ESCos)

In order to lever in private finance, some local authorities have begun to provide energy services by entering into a legal public/private joint venture ESCo, comprising the installation and operation of energy supply and demand reduction measures. Management models for ESCos can be based on community ownership, not-for-profit companies or private utilities.

Energy services are sub-contracted to a specialist ESCo for a fixed period for a set fee. The ESCo specifies, pays for, installs and runs power, heating, and cooling equipment over that time period. Once terms have been agreed, the ESCo organises and oversees all necessary works to the building(s) and the energy supply. Since the equipment remains the property of the ESCo there is no capital outlay for the customer. The capital, running and maintenance costs are subsumed into the customer's bills over the period of the contract.

The customer pays a guaranteed amount for the energy services, leaving the ESCo to focus on delivering those services as efficiently as possible to maximise profits and/or environmental benefits. They can be a powerful mechanism for meeting the requirements of planning and other policy and legislative requirements profitably.

ESCos are authorised to generate, distribute and supply electricity under the Electricity (Class Exemptions from the Requirement for a Licence) Order 2001. They are increasingly being used by local authorities, but could also be used by regeneration companies and other organisations, to deliver sustainable energy and sustainable development objectives. Although still subject to central government capital expenditure controls, by keeping the public sector shareholding at less than 20% local authorities can avoid those controls imposed on purely local government companies.

ESCos are a useful mechanism for delivering one-off as well as long-term projects at small and community scales. They enable profits to be recycled to install more energy generation capacity or energy efficiency measures. They are particularly suited to delivering power and heat networks. While it is more expensive to produce and supply than centrally generated energy due to the higher cost of the plant it can usually be supplied cheaper to customers since it is supplied direct avoiding distribution and other costs.

Examples of energy services in the UK include the following:

¥ preferred supplier partnerships (also known as affinity deals ) are set up between an energy supply company and a local authority or housing association to supply energy at an affordable rate. The local authority receives a finders fee for each household it signs up (typically around £30) and invests the money in energy efficiency measures. For example, Aberdeen City Council receives around £60,000 per year with its scheme.

¥ social housing energy clubs offer similar benefits to preferred supplier partnerships, but focus more on low income groups. Typically they offer grants, discounts or interest-free finance on energy efficiency measures and appliances and energy advice on the use of existing heating systems. The Black Country Energy Services Club, comprising Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council and six housing associations, offers such services.

¥ ESCos can generate and supply energy services to one or more buildings. Energy generation by an ESCo, with profits recycled into a fund to provide capital and revenue funding for energy efficiency measures and further generating capacity, can remove upfront capital costs

of energy infrastructure from the developer. ESCos can help to raise the importance of energy management where it may otherwise not be considered a priority.

More information (including a free consultancy service): www.est.org.uk

case studies

Titanic Mill CO2 neutral development: Linthwaite, West Yorkshire

This Grade II listed textile mill is now being converted to provide 130 residential apartments, a spa/leisure facility, hotel and a restaurant. It is expected that the project will be completed in late 2006.

Energy and water systems for a converted mill managed using an ESCo. Source: ESD Ltd

The developer, Lowry Renaissance Ltd working in partnership with Energy for Sustainable Development Ltd and Kirklees Metropolitan Council, has committed to making the apartments carbon-neutral (on a net annual basis) and to minimise carbon emissions from the ground floor spaces.

The development will incorporate high levels of insulation, high specification windows and mechanical ventilation with heat recovery. It will also feature a roof-mounted, 50kWp PV system (part-funded by the DTI Major PV Grants programme) and a biomass-fuelled CHP system, producing 100kW of electricity and 140kW of heat. This is expected to reduce annual CO2 emissions by approximately 400 tonnes in residential areas and 200 tonnes in commercial areas. The

site will be connected to the local electricity grid which will allow the development to export excess electricity from the biomass CHP system and to purchase electricity from an electricity supplier when demand on-site is high or the CHP system is not operating.

A not-for-profit ESCo (Mill Energy Services) has been set up to manage and supply energy and water systems. This is wholly owned by the building's management company which in turn is owned by the residents and the ground floor tenants. The vision is for this to be a ground-breaking, small-scale ESCo demonstrating that a holistic approach to energy demand and supply can lead to commercially viable carbon-neutral energy services for domestic customers.

After running costs have been deducted from the revenue, any surplus will be used to build up a reserve fund for the long-term renewal of the energy and water system assets.

More information: www.kirklees.gov.uk, www.lowryrenaissance.com/titanic.html

Thameswey Energy Ltd: Woking Borough Council ESCo

Woking s ESCo (Thameswey Energy Ltd) was set up in 1999 to participate in energy services projects and to enable expansion of the established private wire network.

Fuel cell powered swimming complex operated by Thamesway Energy Ltd. Source: Woking Borough Council

4. community input

This was initiated by the council s energy manager, with support of senior management and politicians. Woking

is now the most energy efficient local authority in the UK, and has the largest installed solar PV capacity.

Thameswey Energy Ltd is a public/private joint venture bringing together Woking Borough Council and the energy company Xergi A/S. Projects are financed with shareholding capital and private finance, with development carried out jointly by Thameswey Energy and Xergi. Thameswey Energy has enabled Woking to increase its own energy generation by over 800% since 2000.

Key lessons:

¥ senior management, including local authority asset managers and politicians, need to back the project.

¥ Woking has opted for a very innovative model that creates genuine commercial partnerships. Other local authorities should use the full breadth of legislative powers (such as the Local Government Act 2000) to enable them to develop special financial vehicles and to develop relationships with energy companies and other commercial partners.

More information: www.woking.gov.uk/environment/climatechangestrategy

HelpCo Energy Club: funding for sustainable energy

In partnership with Scott ishPower, the Greater London Energy Efficiency Network (GLEEN) set up HelpCo with

a £99,000 matched funding grant from the Energy Saving Trust (energy services programme). HelpCo is a not-for-profit community energy club offering a range of energy services to UK residents and communities to help reduce carbon emissions and incidences of fuel poverty.

Services include:

¥ fixed weekly or monthly payment plans and arrears management

¥ monthly energy efficiency statement including advice and feedback

¥ a free home energy audit

¥ loan finance for efficiency measures.

Scott ishPower funds the scheme by paying a commission for every customer. It bills HelpCo for the energy and HelpCo bills the customers, which includes a monthly charge of £1.50 plus VAT. HelpCo has estimated that the average cost saving to households is approximately 7%.

Under the scheme nine local authorities have signed up tenants, saving customers £25,000 a year on their fuel bills and earning £60,000 in commission payments to local authority energy funds. HelpCo has awarded over 100 loans for energy efficiency measures and conducted more than 1,000 Warm Front surveys.

More information: www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings/funding/innovative

Community involvement in planning for sustainable energy can help to foster support for, and improve the quality of, development. It can raise awareness of the need for sustainable energy and help contribute to actual project delivery. It is therefore crucial that communities and other stakeholders are fully involved from the beginning.

There are different ways in which communities can be involved in developing and implementing sustainable energy projects. These range from participating in consultation during the preparation of an energy plan or the development plan process through to initiating community-owned projects as part of existing or new communities.

While participation in decision making is sometimes seen as an expensive impediment to the development process, in the long term it can reduce conflict and lead to outcomes that better reflect the aspirations of communities. Planners, developers and other partners should engage with communities as early in the development process as possible and provide genuine opportunities for communities to influence the outcomes.

Proactive community-led initiatives, assisted by schemes such as the Countryside Agency s Community Renewables Initiative15, enable active involvement in decision making and full- or part-ownership of installations. Community- owned green energy is the mainstay of German and Danish renewable expertise and has worked successfully in the UK since 1996.

Experience in the UK and abroad suggests that encouraging community development and ownership of sustainable energy projects, where benefits of developments to both individuals and communities are tangible, can be particularly useful in:

¥ increasing installed sustainable energy capacity

¥ promoting cheaper and better technologies through private investment

¥ helping overcome problems and conflicts

¥ providing an attractive financial return to those involved and creating economic benefits for the local area including job creation, services and production of affordable energy

¥ promoting individual commitments to low carbon.

There are a range of options for community ownership. In a co-operative model, heat and power is produced and used in or close to the community. Merchant supply is a similar model, although the electricity may be generated some distance away. In the case of wind power, this may be a more suitable option for high density urban developments. In both cases excess power can be sold to the national grid and money earned through accruing Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROCs).

Energy4All Limited: a co-operative future for clean green energy

Owned by Baywind Energy Co-operative Ltd, the UK s first community-owned wind farm, Energy4All was formed in 2002 to expand the number of renewable energy co-operatives throughout Scotland, England, Wales and Ireland. Energy4All provides a package of administrative and financial services to its clients in return for a share

of income from the co-operatives.

The co-operative has so far generated enough green electricity to power 1,300 homes a year while paying an attractive return to its 1,350 members and supporting local initiatives such as the Baywind Energy Conservation Trust.

As additional co-operatives are established the aim is that they too will own a share in Energy4All. Energy4All is currently financed by the Baywind Co-operative and

a grant from Co-operative Action.

Due to this financial structure Energy4All has only limited risk capital at its disposal, although management skills

and time can be made available to community organisations. Site owners or developers are normally expected to meet the direct costs of the development process until planning consent is achieved.

In November 2005 Energy4All launched a new share issue for Westmill Wind Farm Co-op. This will be the first wind farm co-operative in the south of England and will consist of five 1.3MW (megawatt) turbines.

More information: www.energy4all.co.uk, www.co-operativeaction.coop, www.baywind.co.uk

Co-operatives are helping to expand sustainable energy. Source: Energy4All Ltd

Holsworthy Biogas Plant: community renewables initiative

Holsworthy Biogas power plant opened in 2001 and processes cattle slurry and food waste from local farms and businesses to make methane. This is used in turbines to create heat and electricity that is then sold to the national grid. The power plant has capacity to process up to 146,000 tonnes of waste per year. The electricity produced should be 14.4 million kW hours per annum from generators with a capacity of 2.1MW.

There are two main by-products to the process: fertiliser, which is distributed to local farmers, and heated water. The aim is to harness the heat to supply local community buildings. Although not yet implemented, the plant has recently received £600,000 from the Community Energy Programme to establish a heat network to supply the local hospital, school and housing. This amounts to

15 million kW hours.

The total cost of the project will be £7.7 million. Funding

was secured with advice from the Countryside Agency s Community Renewables Initiative and Devon Association for Renewable Energy (DARE), combined with aid from Torridge District Council and the South West Regional Development Agency. The plant was built by the German company Farmatic Biotech Energy AG which originally held shares in the project. Shares will now be held by the local community and supplying farmers, together with other interested parties.

The heat distribution will be managed by a community group, which has been developed in consultation with DARE, with support from the district council and the regional development agency. The project will bring skills, expertise and value for money into the community.

More information: www.holsworthy-biogas.co.uk

Local farmers and the community benefit from Holsworthy Biogas plant. Source: Renewable Heat and Power Ltd

Merchant wind power: Ecotricity

Merchant wind power (MWP) is a commercially attractive method of providing green energy to organisations with an environmental agenda. Energy supplier Ecotricity builds, owns, operates and maintains wind turbines on

a partner organisation s site, or in the case of off-site MWP, at a remote location.

MWP partners agree to purchase the electricity, typically over a 12 year period, in return for a competitively priced, dedicated supply of green energy. The desired amount of green energy is guaranteed to be available and the financial costs of the project are absorbed by the supplier leaving no financial or developmental risk to the partner.

In April 2004 construction of London s first wind park was completed at the Ford Motor Company s Dagenham site. Two 85m high turbines, with a combined capacity of 3.6MW, generate over 6.7 million kWh of electricity every year, providing all the electricity needed to power Ford s Dagenham Diesel Centre. This is equivalent to enough electricity to power over 2,000 homes (nearly seven million units per annum).

More information: www.ecotricity.co.uk

Co-operative culture in Denmark and Sweden

In Denmark and Sweden the energy systems are characterised by distributed power generation, with capacity located within communities. The culture change necessary to make this happen was brought about by distributing the benefits through co-operative ownership.

There are five models: community-led investment, consumer- owned utilities, farmer co-operatives, new ventures and trade associations. These models of ownership have been widely used in the UK, but not to deliver energy projects.

Consumer-owned district heating

Developed as a response to the 1970s energy crisis, district heating now accounts for over half of Denmark s space heating now comes from district heating, enabling efficient use of fossil fuels while increasing renewable energy and making communities more resilient to fuel price fluctuations.

Schemes have been delivered by local authority or co-operative-owned heating companies, with most using CHP from generators ranging from 1MW upwards.

Formed in 1992 as a not-for-profit organisation, H¿je Taarstrup is one of 19 district heating co-operatives in greater Copenhagen. The co-operative s board of representatives, which approves the budget and accounts, is the main decision-making body. Each shareholder has voting rights, but there is also a general meeting once a year to elect the board and this is open to all consumers.

The relationship that is fostered between energy producers and suppliers, brought about by the co-operative, is seen

as an effective model for the investment and management of community district heating. The local authority s planning powers and role as loan guarantor have been crucial.

The district heating co-operatives have similarities with the UK s community interest companies, with their assets dedicated in perpetuity for the benefit of the community. However, their co-operative nature provides consumers with the additional benefit of a democratic structure.

Employees: 14

Annual turnover: £13.7 million

Typical investment payback period: 20 years

Consumer members: 35 (elected board of representatives) Consumer connections: 4,500

Heat supplied annually: 1,200 Tjoules

Peak load: 60 MWth

Heated floor area equivalent: 2.6 million m2

Source: DTI Global Watch Mission.

District heating consumers:

H¿je Taarstrup co-operative structure

Ford Plant in Dagenham. Source: Ecotricity

Consumer-owned district heating in Denmark. Source: Ecotricity

One family Apartment Industries City council houses blocks

15 10 10 Board of representatives (35 members)

3 2 2 2 Board of directors (9 members)

Company management

Company staff Source: Urbed

how to implement sustainable energy through design and development

This section is structured around the design and development process, and shows how sustainable energy can be incorporated into new development.

4.1 reducing energy demand:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city scale

¥ at the street/block scale

¥ at the building scale.

4.2 efficient energy supply:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city and street/block scales

¥ at the building scale.

4.3 renewable energy generation:

¥ at the neighbourhood/city and street/block scales

¥ at the building scale.

4

design and development

This section considers the options for implementing sustainable energy strategies. Decisions will be influenced by the development s design strategy, location and scale.

Energy used in the built environment for thermal uses such as heating or cooling and electrical appliances or lighting, can be addressed in different ways. The guide deals generically with reducing demand across both, with particular approaches implied rather than specified in the different design and locational approaches.

Although the guide concentrates on technological, locational and design issues, rather than actual daily use and operation of buildings, such behavioural changes do have a significant impact on overall energy demand.

Design strategy

The design strategy will be influenced by the development scale and location. The objective should be to minimise

a development s GHG emissions and therefore its contribution to climate change. However, in order to achieve value for money (for example, by minimising the cost per tonne of carbon saved) developments will often comprise a combination of demand reduction, efficient supply and renewable energy.

Reducing energy demand

Reducing the energy demand of a building or group of buildings through passive design techniques (such as massing, daylighting or form) will generally offer a sound basis for implementing low- and zero-carbon technologies cost effectively. In addition, choosing energy efficient heating systems can reduce carbon emissions.

Efficient energy supply

Greenhouse gas emissions can be significantly reduced by generating energy using conventional fossil fuels more efficiently, for example by using waste heat. Distributing this energy via heat, cooling or power networks improves the efficiency still further. Renewable energy technologies can also make use of the same infrastructure.

Renewable energy generation

Incorporating renewable energy technologies into buildings or as part of energy networks is increasingly being demanded by prescriptive planning policies. Technological innovation and rapid reductions in unit costs mean that even if renewable energy systems are not incorporated into a development or energy network, consideration should be given to their future role.

Location Development scale

Different approaches, technologies and combinations of How and what sustainable energy technologies are technologies will be more or less suitable depending on the incorporated into a development will depend on the

location. This should be considered as part of a masterplan  overall scale: from a few houses or buildings to a major

or sustainable energy plan. development or regeneration project. Implementation that

meets the seemingly competing aims of maximising value Urban locations for money, while achieving environmental and social

Higher densities create opportunities for reducing energy objectives, will require a diverse range of approaches and

use from transport as well as from developments technologies. The remainder of this section is colour-coded themselves. Higher densities are often ideal for developing to demonstrate what options are available at the three community heat, cooling and power networks supplied by different scales which are set out below.

low- and zero-carbon technologies. Roof- or facade-mounted

building-integrated technologies, such as solar and micro- Neighbourhood/city scale

wind, may be well suited to urban areas. Sustainable energy incorporated at this scale will potentially

serve the whole city or neighbourhood and is likely to Suburban locations include a full range of land uses. Opportunities for creating These developments characteristically have lower densities diverse and integrated networks cost effectively as part of which can, without careful planning, increase the energy an overarching masterplan or energy plan may be greatest used for transport and movement. Sustainable energy at this scale.

networks may still be viable and there is greater scope for

more space-intensive technologies, such as biomass and Street/block scale

medium to large wind turbines. Generally larger and more Developments of discreet groups of dwellings, including a mix accessible roof space means that building-integrated of uses, offer similar opportunities as the city/neighbourhood technologies are easier to install. scale for creating sustainable energy networks. Greater

consideration will need to be given to site analysis and micro- Rural-urban fringe locations climate. This scale can vary considerably in size from an Densities here are likely to be low. There will be great individual block to a large estate.

potential for building integrated renewables due to high solar

and wind access. Availability of space and opportunities to Building scale

provide biomass can generate income which may be an Smaller developments including individual dwellings, apartment important factor in technology choice. Sustainable energy blocks or commercial buildings provide opportunities for networks can supply groups of buildings or homes, although integrating sustainable energy into or around buildings.

lower densities mean that the opportunities are likely to be These can operate as stand-alone systems or feed into a

less than in urban or suburban locations. national grid or local energy network. Small-scale sustainable

energy networks can also work effectively at this scale. Detailed attention will need to be given to the design of buildings and their surrounds in order to maximise current

and future sustainable energy potential.

1. reducing energy demand: neighbourhood/city scale

Reduce energy demand for large Integration of water, landscape and built form is essential in numbers of dwellings and other uses. order to create a high quality environment and enhance local

biodiversity. The masterplanning team should develop a clear

green space strategy which makes a positive contribution The current government target is to to local biodiversity. It will also need to resolve a number

of conflicting requirements, in particular the need for reduce CO2 emissions by 60% by appropriate residential density21, good practice in urban

2050. This should be the minimum design (placemaking, connectivity and enclosure) and good that new development achieves, access to daylight and sunlight.At densities over 100

dwellings per hectare the tensions between good urban although it should ideally be capable design and solar access become more apparent. Built form

of being carbon neutral. This will need to be manipulated and sculpted to ensure requires a fundamental change  adequate sunlight to amenity space.

in approach to masterplanning, Sophisticated design tools are now available and these need especially at a neighbourhood or  to be employed in a rigorous analysis of the microclimate24.

city scale typically around 2,000 Aen saobllaer 8la0y%ou  to fo  fd 3w 0e lldineggsr eteosheaivtheearcscideess o tfo d uuneo sbosutrtuhc wteildl homes or 5,000 people and a full sunlight. This should not imply rigid layouts, but does

range of uses. present a challenge to designers.

Design codes can be used to protect solar access.

These have been used in American cities such as San Jose, The new and growing focus on reducing GHG emissions

California and Boulder, Colorado. A number of pilots are

in the built environment requires a rigorous holistic

also being run in the UK25. Solar access can be defined as approach, from initial briefing and concept design,

the unobstructed availability of direct sunlight for four hours through to implementation and long-term management.

at midday on 21 December the winter solstice. Other Larger-scale projects involving masterplanning are likely to definitions employ geometrical projections to describe a

be carried out by a number of development partners, from solar envelope . However, future hotter summers may mean both private and public sectors. While the objectives of that overheating becomes an issue, and east-west

private housebuilders and registered social landlords (RSLs) orientations may be more appropriate for some sites.

may previously have been markedly different, the new Use should also be made of deciduous trees to ensure sustainability agenda demands a shared vision, common adequate solar shading.

goals and a commitment to long-term management of the

public realm. It also demands a commitment to community

consultation, integrated design, innovative funding and,

above all, quality.

Large-scale development offers a unique opportunity to

consider and plan for a robust infrastructure that will

support the aspirations of a sustainable community in terms

of energy supply, water and waste management, transport

and biodiversity. All these issues need consideration from

the earliest stage and will have a major influence on the

masterplan concept. Performance targets need to be

established and agreed as part of the masterplan, concept Concept statements22 statement or development framework.

One example of this is the standards being proposed to A concept statement is a simple expression of the guide sustainable development in Ashford, Kent20 (see case kind of place that new development should create. It study opposite). The approach by Ashford Borough Council is a positive document that sets out how the policies has been to set four standards for energy, water, waste and and objectives of the local plan, local development materials, and to apply these to various types of development document or energy strategy should apply to a

such as urban villages, regeneration and so on. specific site in order to deliver the best possible

economic, social and environmental benefits.

The project team should have sustainable development

expertise in order to adopt a strategic and co-ordinated Concept statements are less detailed than development approach to engineering, architectural design and briefs but more informative for developers and the community development. The design approach requires  community than statutory plan policies. Most concept a level of analysis not always carried out at such an  statements are no longer than two sides of A4 paper.

early stage, including capacity studies, energy loads,  More information: www.countryside.gov.uk/LAR/ CO2 emissions, lifecycle costing and so on. Landscape/PP/planning/tools_technique.asp

Z-squared: Thames Gateway

Secondary transport Main transport route to An infrastructure-led concept design has been produced  linking suburbs and from city centre

for a 2,000 home mixed-use, mixed-tenure development using proven technologies to achieve a zero-carbon,  zero-waste masterplan.

The consultants developed a zero-carbon plan for the site and made estimates for a range of energy demand scenarios using benchmarks, assumptions and daily peak load profiles. They chose the following technologies:

¥ space heating through inter-seasonal thermal storage (ITS), which is an effective way of providing heating and cooling in harmony with the seasons

800m walking ¥ hot water from CHP fuelled by biomass, biogas and distance residual waste, with gas as a back-up

¥ electricity from CHP and larger wind turbines, which  will also power the ITS system at times when electricity  is not needed.

Preliminary cost calculations suggest that the net incremental Community hub cost of building to Z-squared standards is an 8% increase  

on a base case built to 2002 building regulations. This

Walkable communities: ped sheds 19 comprises a 6% increase for site-wide utilities infrastructure

The planning of ped sheds can reduce the energy  and 5% to meet EcoHomes excellent standard, offset by a consumed by the transport network. Main arterial public  3% saving in carparking and other support infrastructure. transport routes can be used to link together communities  This cost differential will reduce to 3% compared to a base that are within easy walking distance of transport hubs. case with the new Part L building regulations.

Higher densities are used closer to the hub so as to reduce  

The integrated nature of the Z-squared infrastructure

the average walking distance for members of the community.

suggests that a multi-utility waste water and ESCo will  Source: XCO2 be required. Discussions with utility companies and ESCos

indicate a willingness to provide this service for Z-squared.

This will reduce the risk for the developer and enable it  

to focus on construction.

case studies SInfrastructureustainability engineer:Specialist :KBBiRoRegional Development Group

Architect: Foster and Partners

Green guide for sustainable Cost consultant: Cyril Sweett

development in Ashford Engineer: Fulcrum Consulting

Between now and 2030 it is anticipated that 31,000 new More information: www.bioregional.com homes will be built and 28,000 jobs created in the growth

area of Ashford, Kent. The green guide will provide a set of

standards for the energy and environmental performance  

of the new development.

The main objective is to combine a functional yet aspirational approach to sustainability with good urban design. Aimed principally at developers and design consultants, it is intended to be adopted as a supplementary planning document within the local development framework (LDF). The standards at present are restricted to residential development but will be extended to include non-residential buildings in due course.

All new development in the Greater Ashford area will be carried out in accordance with a masterplan and will have to comply with a set of design codes. The guide sets four standards covering four key topics: energy, water, waste and materials. In addition, it includes aspirational qualitative requirements for biodiversity and transport. The highest standard, which requires a carbon-neutral solution, is set for 2015.  

Concept design for a zero-carbon, zero-waste development. More information: www.ashford.gov.uk, www.cabe.org.uk Source: Foster and Partners

street/block scale

Reduce energy demand for discreet groups of dwellings and other uses.  

Sustainable design at street/block

scale must be based on a more

detailed analysis of the site and its

microclimate. The starting point for

this will be incorporating the daily Deciduous vegetation should be used to and seasonal movement of the sun, block the high summer sun and reduce the

as well as assessing local wind clohancew sun ofw ioverheating.ll be able to pIne ntheetr awinterte thr otheugh speed and direction. the branches and increase solar gain.

Daylighting and sunlighting criteria need to be established  in order to inform the design process. Increasing density  will limit the amount of natural light available. One useful benchmark is to calculate the annual solar radiation falling on the horizontal surface of the site and to compare this with the predicted annual energy demand of the development.

The guiding principles of bioclimatic design solar

orientation, wind sheltering, compact built form then need Taller buildings should be located to the

north of a site to maximise solar access. to be weighed up against the principles of good urban

design including the need for placemaking, space and to

create a sense of identity and character. Conventional urban

design thinking, based on the notions of permeable street

patterns and perimeter blocks, will not necessarily generate

the most sustainable solutions.

The objectives of sustainable urban design are to provide

attractive sunlit amenity spaces at ground level (whether Impact of height and aspect on solar gain private or public), to ensure good levels of daylighting within Source: XCO

dwellings at every floor level, to optimise passive solar gain 2

while minimising risk of summer overheating, and to maximise

the potential for collecting solar energy at roof level.

Iilnlucsotrnattreads ti ntot hteheUsrybmanmDeteriscigalnsCtreoemt/pbeloncdkiurmel 2a 6,t i so on ls ah r-i ip ns fluenced case studies

design will tend to generate asymmetric relationships, with taller

buildings positioned to the north to minimise overshadowing. Planning gain at BedZED:

Block proportions will tend towards rectangular shapes, for

example 100 x 50m rather than 60 x 60m square; there will  Sutton, London27

be an east-west emphasis.

Completed in 2001, BedZed consists of 82 dwellings in From an architectural point of view the design of the a high density development. It was built as an example of roofscape will be critical so as to maximise the potential  low-carbon design and to promote a zero-carbon lifestyle. for south-facing solar panels. Flexibility is another key issue,

Planning gain was used to boost densities without

with framed structures allowing more scope for change in

sacrificing design quality. The added revenue that this

the layout and size of dwellings to respond to changing

achieved (around £208,800 for each 6-plot development) needs in the future.

helped fund the higher building specification. Some local authorities, such as the London Borough of Merton, allow the option of building at higher densities subject to a specified level of green credentials being met. This allows carbon-neutral proposals to compete for land without unduly burdening councils or the developer.

The site was originally put on the market with planning permission for 85 habitable rooms per acre and a limit of three storeys. The scheme has increased in value by achieving 271 habitable rooms, over 2,500m2 of live/work units and space for offices, studios and community facilities.

This high occupation density is made attractive through the photovoltaic panels to power lighting if and when practical unique design where workspace roofs are used as gardens. cost-effective products become available.

In this way, most units get a private garden at densities that

Key features:

would normally allow only a balcony.

¥ community heating

BedZED properties achieved premium values, some 1720%

¥ close to transport nodes

above conventional new homes in the area, with buyers

paying extra for the green credentials. ¥ high levels of insulation

¥ solar buffer zone to each dwelling

More information: www.bedzed.org.uk, www.bioregional.com

¥ stack effect in communal stairwells

¥ materials low in embodied energy

Slateford Green: Edinburgh ¥ grey water recycling

Slateford Green is a mixed tenure development designed  ¥ car club

by Hackland & Dore Architects for Canmore Housing ¥ live/work units.

Association. It consists of 69 flats for social rent, 39 for

shared ownership and 12 for outright sale through Malcolm More information: www.canmore-housing.org.uk

Homes Ltd. The urban village sits on 6ha of former railway

goods yard in the suburb of Gorgie. The traditional Scott ish

enclosed tenement of 120 apartments is wrapped around  Coopers Road: Southwark, London

a tear-shaped green space.

Coopers Road involves the regeneration of a 1960s council

The project was completed in 2000 and showcases many  estate in Southwark. In 1999 the council made the decision

of the key principles of sustainable living including a low  to demolish the existing high rise buildings and appointed

C02 energy strategy. Using waste heat from the local Peabody Trust as a development partner. ECD architects were distillery, the district heating system borders the site  appointed in 2000 and worked closely with existing residents and each flat is connected using stairwell ducts. This is to develop a concept for the new masterplan. This is based  complemented by rainwater collection, reed beds, winter on four courtyards, each providing 3540 homes with a mix of gardens and Passivent ventilation. townhouses and flats. A total of 154 dwellings are planned for

The project is significant because it also demonstrates the the 1.7ha site (90 dwellings per hectare). The layout creates a financial viability of housing for sale that is car-free and that clear hierarchy of private, semi-private and public space. The incorporates sustainable construction methods. houses have small private patio gardens which open onto an

attractive landscaped courtyard measuring 21x 35m.

Energy saving is achieved mainly by super-insulation. The

structure is clad in a breathing wall with 175mm of Warmcel From the outset the project team was keen to establish a

with panel-vent sheathing. Most flats have conservatories clear set of sustainability targets which could be delivered oriented into the south-facing courtyard, providing passive within the project budget, including enhanced standards of solar gain to living spaces. A district heating system had to thermal insulation, high performance timber windows,

be abandoned as a result of legal obstacles, and gas-fired accessible riser ducts, community heating and CHP, low-flush boilers previously planned as a back-up were installed WCs, recycling facilities and bicycle storage. In addition, the instead. Natural ventilation is encouraged by passive  design offers the opportunity of retrofitting roof-mounted solar stack ventilation and there is provision for retrofitting of thermal collectors or photovoltaics in the future. The scheme

achieved an EcoHomes very good rating.

Orientation and solar access were primary considerations  

in the planning of the courtyards. Heliodon studies, which simulate the path of the sun, were carried out using physical models to optimise the design. The lower three storey houses are to the south of the four storey flats to ensure good sunlight within the courtyards. Daylight within the dwellings  is maximised to reduce the need for artificial lighting.

A gas-fired CHP plant has been installed providing approximately 11% of the heat demand and 12% of the electricity demand; there is a 10 year payback period. Average CO2 emissions for each dwelling are estimated  to be less than 25kg/m2 per year.

All flats above ground level have balconies and all flats and houses have access to the gated landscaped courtyards. Access roads are designed as Homezones with 50%  on-street parking. Phase 1 was completed in December 2004. The second and last phase commences in early 2006.

Energy efficient layout at Coopers Road. More information: www.ecda.co.uk Source: ECD Architects

building scale

Reduce energy demand for  

individual buildings. Heat exchanger to  Use the most

retain heat during  efficient lamps the winter and luminaires

Numerous energy and sustainability Natural

ventilation standards have been published to provide

which set out how buildings can be comfort

cooling in designed to be more energy efficient, Make  summer

and how they can make greater use Solar  maximum  High

of low- and zero-carbon energy shading  unsaetuoraf l  levels of technologies. tsfrooolrmaer dhguiagcihen s  daylight itheat innoskuelaetpio  n

summer  Provide exposed thermal

sun but  mass to absorb solar

There are currently a large number of benchmarks and allow winter  gains in the winter and

checklists that can help ensure buildings are energy  sun to enter  absorb the cool air during

efficient and contribute towards all aspects of sustainable the building summer nights

development (see box below). These include the Millennium

Communities Standard, Building for Life, SPeAR, AECB How passive measures can reduce the energy

standards, EST Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing, consumption of buildings

BREEAM/EcoHomes and the Government s forthcoming

Code for Sustainable Homes. Source: XCO2

High levels of insulation in the walls, roofs, floors, doors and windows are paramount in reducing winter heat loss and therefore energy demand. It also helps keep buildings cool during summer, an increasingly important issue as the climate changes. In addition to energy saving, consideration should be given to the materials used. For example, while windows should be at least double-glazed with low emissivity coatings, PVC frames use harmful chemicals in their manufacture and are unlikely to be suited to national parks or conservation areas.

Airtight construction and ventilation are important. Care  Energy standards

must be taken in the construction detailing to avoid thermal

bridges where heat can find an easy route through the A variety of standards exist that can be used to raise fabric. The 2006 revision to Part L of the building regulations the environmental, and sometimes social,

will require airtightness and pressure tests. Wherever performance of buildings.

possible natural ventilation28, such as passive stack The Association for Environment Concious Building ventilation allowing natural movement of air in the building, (AECB) energy standards set best practice levels should be preferred over energy intensive mechanical of energy efficiency performance (www.aecb.net). means. Where this is not possible, mechanical ventilation The two standards ( silver and gold ) both represent should include heat recovery to reduce heat loss. a considerable improvement on today's practice.

The gold standard is based on the German passive house (www.passive.de) and the silver is based

on several other international standards such as

the Swiss MINERGIE.

Others include:

English Partnerships Millennium Communities Standard (www.englishpartnerships.co.uk).

CABE Building for Life (www.buildingforlife.org). Arup SPeAR (www.arup.com/environment/home.cfm).

EST Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing (www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings).

BRE BREEAM/EcoHomes (www.breeam.org). Code for Sustainable Homes (www.odpm.gov.uk).

Thermographic image showing the heat loss through a typical building fabric. Source: XCO2

Thermal mass should be exposed internally to absorb solar The walls, floors and roofs have thick insulation (some  radiation received during the winter months. During the 400% over present UK standards) and high specification summer it helps to store cool air absorbed during the night. construction standards ensure that buildings are airtight.  Summer temperatures are predicted to increase significantly As well as gas condensing boilers for central heating,  

over the next few decades and so thermal mass, cooling and heat recovery systems have been installed. Solar water ventilation should be increasingly important considerations. heaters have been installed on south-facing roofs and  

solar PV panels and water recycling systems are available  Glazing is important for solar gain and for allowing light into

as optional extras.

a building. The greatest heat loss is through windows and  

so larger areas of glazing should be on the south-facing  The use of toxic materials has been avoided wherever

side of the building. Again, consideration should be given  possible and local and recycled building materials are used

to the potential for overheating now and in the future, and  where feasible to reduce environmental damage.

to the suitability of large areas of glazing in design and

More information: www.livingvillage.com

locational terms. In some cases sun/light pipes may be

useful, particularly since a growing number of flats now  

have no windows in kitchens and bathrooms.

Hockerton Housing Project:

Iisn crreedausciningguesneeorgf yh icgohnesruemffpict ii eonnc iyn abpupilldiainngcse.sHaonwd elivgehrt, initgis  Nottinghamshire

happening at a slower rate than for space heating and hot The Hockerton Housing Project was the UK s first self- water. This is mainly due to the higher insulation levels sufficient housing development. Completed in 1998 it demanded by the building regulations. consists of five terraced units with glazed conservatories to

A control system should be used to prevent excessive use  the south side and high levels of insulation and thermal mass of artificial lighting when natural light is available. All artificial on the northern side. The project, which represents an lighting should use the most efficient globes. Appliances aspiration more than an easily replicable model, promotes installed in new buildings should be of the highest energy low energy building design as well as a low-energy lifestyle.

efficiency rating, currently the EU A rating. While success depends largely on the commitment of

residents, it does demonstrate what can be achieved when

environmental goals are prioritised. It also shows how individual case studies which utilises biomass, grey water treatment and reuse.

buildings can operate within a multi-functional environment

The Wintles: Living Villages,  Key features:

Bishops Castle ¥ zero carbon emissions

¥ passive solar heating through solar orientation and earth

The Wintles is a development by Living Villages, a company shelter, and 70% heat recovery from extracted air

set up to create sustainable eco-friendly communities. ¥ wind turbines and photovoltaics

Located in rural Bishops Castle, each house is individual

¥ black water recycling using reed beds

and positioned for maximum solar gain. Consideration of the

effects of light and shade and the climatic conditions have ¥ high levels of insulation to reduce heat loss

also been taken into account. ¥ £90,000 build cost per home.

More information: www.hockerton.demon.co.uk

Homes in Shropshire built to high environmental standards. Self-sufficient community in Nottinghamshire. Source: Living Villages Source: Hockerton Housing Project

2. efficient energy supply: neighbourhood/city and street/block scale

Supply energy efficiently to large The potential for utilising power and heating networks in developments or discreet groups  new and existing developments is significant; schemes

range in size from one building to city-wide links connecting of buildings. residential, public and commercial buildings. They can be

developed relatively swiftly using technologies currently

available. Well-configured modern systems can significantly Developing sustainable energy reduce a development s carbon emissions in cost-effective

infrastructure can often be easiest, ways. They should therefore be considered as part of a local most flexible and cost-effective in authority s energy plan as well as being utilised as part of

any masterplanning process.

larger developments or in discreet

groups of buildings. The aim should Craonmgemoufneitny eerngeyr gsoy uarnc de sP, WincNlusd cinagn cmoankvee nutsioenoafl ab owiliedres

be to create a robust network for using traditional fossil fuels, CHP, energy from waste, heating, cooling, and/or powering geothermal, fuel cells and renewable energy (see Section 5 local homes and buildings which  faonrdal odwesecsrti pctaiorbno onf ttehcehsneo tleocghiensolsohgoieusld). bTeh  ep rmiooristitseefdfi ctoient

can respond to future changes. maximise CO2 reduction. However, networks are flexible

and allow conventional energy technologies to be replaced by renewable sources as fossil fuels become less viable.

In a community energy system heat, refrigeration or Community energy and PWNs can also be linked together electricity is generated from a central source or sources  to provide a greater security of supply. PWNs also allow and distributed via a network (of pipes or private wires  for export and import of electricity.

for example) to buildings.

For communal heating and cooling networks to be viable Community heating and cooling enables more efficient in cost and efficiency terms, they need to supply dwellings

creation of heat and power from primary energy sources. which have been built to a minimum density of at least 30 Heat, usually in the form of hot water produced by a dwellings or 100 people per hectare. A quarter of the UK centralised boiler or more commonly combined heat and population lives in such densities, while current government power (CHP), is distributed to customers via super-insulated planning policy stipulates densities of between 30 and 50 underground pipes. dwellings per hectare for new housing.

Private wire networks (PWNs) distribute electricity and can At the early stages of a development the fluctuations in

utilise the same generating plant and infrastructure as demand for energy (that is, the demand profile ) for heat, community heating or cooling. Local supply of power, cooling and power is unlikely to match supply capacity. delivered independently from the national grid, minimises the This will mean significant initial capital costs with little return. energy that is lost via distribution, leading to greater energy Options include obtaining bridging finance or securing a grant efficiency and lower CO2 emissions.

Back up

Return  boilers  Heat mains for heating and hot water

Natural gas supply

Heat-fired absorption chiller

Combined heat

and power unit  Energy services

Hot water converted into  supplied to chilled water using water/

Thermal  liquid salt as a refridgerant  Town centre store  buildings

Heat-fired absorption chiller

Chilled water main    onditioning

Private electricity network  Private electrical wire network Import/export electricity  for town centre buildings  for town centre buildings

Other generation in the event of a failure of the national grid

Return

Public electricity grid  Local public wire electricity  Distribution network

Private wire and community heating system, Woking. Source: Woking Borough Council

case studies

80

70

60  Geothermal and CHP district heating

50  and chilling scheme: Southampton

40

30  City Council

20  In response to dramatic rises in oil prices in the 1970s

10  Southampton embarked on one of the UK s first district heating

0  and cooling schemes. Elements of the scheme include:

¥ a geothermal aquifer providing 1520% of the system s heat and a CHP engine supplying the remainder

¥ 30,000MWh of heating and 1,200MWh of cooling each year

Community heating as a proportion of the domestic ¥ 4,000MWh of electricity that is generated from CHP heating market (%) and sold to the national grid each year

Source: XCO2 ¥ a saving of 11,000 tonnes of CO2 per annum

¥ an initial cost of £6 million.

The council s private sector partner is Utilicom which financed (see funding under Section 3.2), or setting up a dedicated

and developed the scheme. It also owns and operates the ESCo to develop and manage the system (see Section 3.3).

scheme under a subsidiary ESCo called Southampton

To assess whether a community heating network is Geothermal Heating Company (SGHC). The cornerstone of financially and technically viable for a particular development, this partnership is the joint co-operation agreement between the relevant parties should carry out an appraisal through  Southampton City Council and Utilicom.

the masterplanning process.

Competitively priced heat supply is guaranteed because Although CHP systems cost more up-front than costs are linked to national fuel prices. Customers can also conventional energy systems they will generate ongoing choose to have air conditioning provided by chilled water revenue. If CHP systems are implemented using an ESCo, circulated via a separate chilling mains. Since 1987 the

they can also maximise the financial return on generating network has expanded and now has over 40 commercial plants by guaranteeing consumer sales at a higher rate  and public sector customers including a hospital, academic than they would by selling electricity to the grid.  and civic buildings, offices, a leisure complex, hotels and a

shopping centre, as well as housing.

Developments that include higher base heat loads (or

basic heating demand), such as hospitals, swimming pools, Electricity from the scheme is sold to the energy supplier

or those including a diversity of users, enable a greater Scott ish and Southern Energy on a long-term contract. economic return for energy technologies. However, CHP Ideally, SGHC would sell directly to those on the CHP grid can still be economic over its lifetime without these heat but to do this it would need to install a PWN.

demands. This makes it one of the most cost-effective

The profit-share from the scheme generates £10,00015,000 ways of reducing CO2 emissions.

of income for the council each year.

CHP plant/ Office and industrial premises centralised  

power source  

Shops and retail premises Civic buildings

Community centre

Housing

Community heating network.  CHP plant serving Southampton s community heating network. Source: CHPA Source: Southampton City Council

Key lessons: Greenwich Millenium Village: London

¥ ensure agreements with companies and developers are Development of the 1,400 home masterplan on the

binding so they cannot avoid their obligations Greenwich peninsula is still in progress, although the main

¥ watch out for consultants who know nothing about, and infrastructure and most residential units are now completed. may therefore advise against, community heating The landowner (English Partnerships) stipulated an 80% reduction in primary energy use compared to new-build

¥ emphasise the triple bottom line (reduced costs, reduced developments benchmarked in 1998. This is likely to be emissions and improved relations with the community) achieved through a combination of community heating

¥ use planning powers to put pressure on those submitting (CHP), solar PV, highly energy efficient buildings and planning applications to consider linking up to the district resident education about using energy efficiently.

heating system (this may need to be through a Section CHP provides space heating and instantaneous unlimited 106 agreement) hot water to each dwelling.

¥ get political support. The scheme is managed on behalf of the developer and the More information: www.southampton.gov.uk/environment/energy residents by an ESCo, Utilicom Ltd. The electricity generated

is at present sold for use off-site but the potential to utilise it in the common parts of the development is being explored. Energy effective estates:  In due course electricity may be sold directly to tenants.

Strathclyde University Key features: ¥ community energy (CHP)

This project aimed to identify the key factors required for

¥ brownfield redevelopment

making a large estate more energy effective . Based on an

analysis of several case studies, researchers determined ¥ high densities

some key factors that are responsible for success: the ¥ green corridors

effectiveness of energy management, the selected financial ¥ increase in biodiversity

structure to support investments, the availability of

¥ use of sustainable materials (low embodied energy)

trustworthy data, energy efficiency measures and effective

supply technologies, availability of funds and grants, and a ¥ grey water recycling

strong evaluation method across all factors. ¥ ecohomes excellent rating

Based on those key factors, researchers created a ¥ passive solar design

framework of considerations about energy management, ¥ high levels of insulation.

creating a financial structure and seeking funding. This

More information: www.greenwich-village.co.uk

framework also included tools/methods to evaluate several

selected measures (based on energy efficiency and energy

supply technologies) under different criteria (best payback,

best CO2 savings and so on). Private wire and community heating More information: www.esru.strath.ac.uk network: Woking Borough Council

The Woking town centre CHP station is the first commercially operated energy station of its kind in the UK. It is the first project of Thameswey Energy Limited (see Section 3.3).

80% reduction in energy use at Greenwich Millenium Village. CHP plant, Woking.

Source: Chris Henderson, English Partnerships Source: Woking Borough Council

Thameswey also aims to finance, build and operate small scale CHP: Aberdeen City Council

CHP stations (up to 5MW) to provide energy services by

private wire and distributed heating and cooling networks to Aberdeen City Council s primary objectives were to achieve institutional, commercial and residential customers. affordable warmth for tenants and reduce CO2 emissions in

cost-effective ways. A report was prepared examining the Woking has the largest proportion of solar PV in the country. main issues, feasibility and available funding for a group of

The PV roof on the Brockhill sheltered housing development, properties in the Seaton area of the city.

installed by BP Solaris, is one of the UK s largest domestic

installations and the first to combine solar and CHP energy. The most attractive option was CHP with overcladding of Both technologies feed into the borough s private wire and the buildings. However, due to the prohibitive capital costs district heating networks. Using the combined technologies of the overcladding the council chose to only implement the enables the housing scheme to receive energy from the CHP scheme. This reduced CO2 emissions and tenant s CHP plant in the winter and from the PV roof in the summer, heating bills by about 40%.

with the potential of achieving 100% sustainability in A not-for-profit company was set up to develop and manage electricity supply. CHP schemes across Aberdeen. The council successfully

The Woking Park Fuel Cell was opened in June 2003 as applied to the Community Energy programme for grant

part of the Woking Park CHP system that supplies energy  funding and also secured a favourable rate of interest on  

to Woking Park and the nearby pool complex. Hydrogen  a bank loan to cover the remaining capital. The council is gas is chemically re-formed from natural gas, and oxygen  also accessing Energy Efficiency Commitment funding.

is extracted from outside air to fuel the 200kWe fuel cell. An energy centre was built close to one of the multi-storey Key features: blocks, housing a 210kWe gas-fired reciprocating engine

CHP unit and 2x700kW gas-fired boilers for peak load  

¥ district energy network powered by CHP

and back-up. The heat is distributed via pre-insulated

¥ private wire network underground pipes which comprise the heat network,  

¥ first commercial fuel cell CHP in the UK with each unit having a new internal distribution system.  

It is anticipated that 47% of the electricity produced by  

¥ aannn eunaleirngvyeesftfmiceiennt coyf rneecayrclyli n£g1 fmunildlio wn hich has enabled the CHP unit will be sold to dwellings served by the heat network, with the remainder being sold to other customers.

¥ photovoltaics installed throughout Woking, especially  

in highly visible locations Key lessons:

¥ reduced energy consumption in local authority corporate ¥ need to approach a process like this strategically

and housing stock of 48.6%, and reduction in CO2 ¥ whole-life costing is the best way to establish the  

emissions of 77.4% on 1990 levels (by 2004) real cost and overall contribution to best value  

¥ reduced CO2 emissions for whole borough of 17% on ¥ external specialist assistance is essential 1990 levels (by 2004) ¥ an individual needs to champion the project

¥ proposed use of domestic waste-to-energy to power  ¥ an arm s-length company arrangement enables CHP incorporating technologies of in-vessel composting, acceleration of refurbishment plans.

anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis. More information: www.aberdeen.gov.uk

More information: www.woking.gov.uk

CHP, Woking. CHP installed as part of an affordable warmth programme, Aberdeen. Source: Woking Borough Council Source: EST

efficient energy supply: building scale

Supply energy efficiently to individual buildings.

Heat pump

Micro-scale stand-alone systems of

energy supply and heat recovery often

offer the most effective way to supply

energy efficiently. Consideration  

will need to be given to issues such  

as the demand for heat and power,  

the availability of space within  

the development and alternative  

fuel sources. Wground in insulated pipesater passed through

Micro-generation is the generation of heat and power using

low- or zero-carbon technologies at the smallest of scales. Ground source heat pump Many of the technologies for doing this are renewable (see

Section 5 for more explanation). Source: XCO2

Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) can be used to replace

conventional boilers in domestic buildings or blocks of flats,

but multiple systems will be needed for larger non-domestic

developments.  Heat recovery ventilation involves the exchanging of heat

from warm extracted air into fresh incoming air using a heat Tdhifefertwenot fdoermsigsnofimGpSlicHaPtio n sh.o Friozro  ne txaalmopr l ve e,  rat ich ao lr i zo hn at va el exchanger. In domestic situations this commonly takes the

system for a large individual house will require an area of  form of a plate heat exchanger. These can recover up to

up to 100m2 to accommodate the pipes. More area will 70% of the extracted heat and therefore significantly reduce be required for larger buildings, however the pipes can be heating bills and CO2 emissions.

located under carparks, open spaces, or even access roads. A number of micro-CHP products are now on the market. Vertical systems require pipes placed in boreholes that These are around the same size as a large domestic boiler extend to depths of 15 to 150 metres. This makes them and don t make any more noise.

ideal for developments where space is at a premium. In summary, GSHP and heat recovery ventilation operate Consideration will need to be given to access for drilling  better as stand-alone systems rather than as part of heat or rigs and to whether or not drilling permits are required  power networks. Micro-CHP installations, however, may be from the Environment Agency. able to sell surplus power back to a local or national grid.

Ground source heat pump at IKEA s distribution centre, Peterborough. Gamblesby village hall. Source: EarthEnergy Ltd Source: CLAREN

case studies Etole 3cktrWic,acl uhtetaintgin gC dOe 2meamn ids  shioa ns  sb be ye n 7  5re %du. c Te hd is  f mro am d  e1 2 thk eW  

village hall accessible throughout the year and increased  IKEA distribution centre: the environmental awareness of the villagers to a point  

Peterborough where many are considering installing their own  

renewable technologies.

Inclusion of a ground source heat pump (GSHP) system  The system is cheap to run, reliable and low maintenance. in Ikea s 130,000m2 distribution centre and office Planning permission and most of the funding is now in  accommodation was part of a strategy to reduce running place for phase two, which includes a wind turbine and PV. costs and CO2 emissions.

More information: www.feta.co.uk/hpa, www.ukleader.org.uk, Heat pumps (ETT Catt 385D) were connected to an www.claren.org.uk

EarthEnergy borehole system providing 250kW of heating

and cooling from over 8km of underground pipework

installed in 45 vertical boreholes drilled to 70 metres each. The Way: Beswick, East Manchester The maintenance-free pipework has been laid underneath

the car park. Beswick is being developed jointly by Lovell and urban

regeneration company New East Manchester. The 550 home The developer faced no planning obstacles in proposing this mixed-tenure scheme will create 447 homes for open market

system; a biomass boiler is also due to be installed. sale, 76 homes for Northern Counties Housing Association More information: www.earthenergy.co.uk and 27 homes for shared ownership. The scheme forms part

of the first phase of a major regeneration plan including new Case study credit: London Renewables, now part of the community facilities and green space.

London Energy Partnership

The Kingspan Tek off-site manufacture system achieves a U-

value of 0.2 W/m2.K for walls, 0.2 W/m2.K for roofs and an Gamblesby Ground Source Heat air leakage rate of approximately 1m3./hr/m. Powergen s

WhisperGen micro-CHP systems are being installed in each Pump: Cumbria home. They are capable of cutting energy bills by around

£150 and  

In order to attract funding for the renovation of the hall in  

CO2 emissions by 20% annually per home. The CHP units

a remote village in the North Pennines, the project needed  

convert the excess heat that normally escapes through the

to be innovative. Since the hall was off the gas mains a

exhaust flue of a conventional boiler into electricity. Any ground source heating system was selected. The project,

electricity generated by the system and not used by the including renovation of the hall, cost £42,000 with grants

householder can also be sold back to Powergen.

from North Pennines Leader+ Programme, Northern Rock

Foundation, Eden District Council, Shell Better Britain Mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) systems Campaign and CLAREN.  are also being installed which can halve heating energy

demand compared to a 2002 standard building.

More information: www.lovell.co.uk, www.powergen.co.uk

GSHP has reduced CO2 emissions from Gamblesby village hall  Energy efficiency and micro-CHP in new housing in East by 75%. Source: CLAREN Manchester. Source: Lovell

3. renewable energy generation: neighbourhood/city and street/block scale

Supply renewable energy to large Technologies suited to integration into the planning of new developments or discreet groups  communities include biomass, wind, hydroelectric and solar.

Each will have particular attributes that make them more or less of buildings. suited to different situations; their application, and combination

of applications, should be considered accordingly.

Large-scale renewable energy Biomass heating is a simple and proven technology, widely technologies can be cost effective used across Europe. It can be easily implemented at the

larger scale, through community energy systems, where the and contribute significantly to the economies of scale are likely to be greater. The technology

energy needs of new and existing to make biomass CHP available at scales smaller than a

power station is developing fast.

communities. When choosing a

technology (or combination of Datetlhivies rsy c aa nled  rsattohrearg teh aonf ba it o tmheas l se vmela oy fb inedmivoidreu aml banuaildg ienagbsl .e technologies) consideration will The capital costs will also be lower.

need to be given to the location  Green spaces on and around a site should be considered to and scale of the development. be multi-functional: they can operate as potential fuel sources,

sustainable drainage systems, habitat areas and as places for

leisure. This will be particularly important around the urban Renewable energy technologies, located either on-site or fringe. The planning and masterplanning processes should be

close by, are sufficiently developed to make a significant used to identify such uses. Management and use of resources contribution to the energy needs of existing and new could be undertaken as part of the operation of an ESCo. communities. The cost of technologies is reducing rapidly (see

Section 3.2 and 3.3 for innovative models for cost-effective Wind turbines on or close to buildings, or along landscape delivery). Commercial viability can be increased still further by corridors, could provide cost-effective and efficient integrating renewables with low-carbon technologies as part energy. Different sizes of turbine will be suited to different of networks of heat and power (see page 26). developments. However, they should be sited carefully

given the sensitivities around their appearance. Adhering

to principles of good design and community involvement

in planning and operation of turbines may help to overcome 1MW  Renewable heat from biomass opposition and foster support (see Section 3.4).

Town centre  Heat from gas PV and solar thermal arrays are playing an increasingly

Biomass CHP  Renewable power from biomass and wind

Power from gas important role in delivering renewable energy targets and should be seen as a key part of a neighbourhood- or city-wide energy

Majority of heat comes from  network. This helps to overcome problems of insufficient roof biomass CCHP supplying the remainderHP network with gas  space on individual buildings and offers the opportunity for high

impact schemes with a large solar canopy in visible locations.

This scale of development can also benefit from inter-seasonal

storage: summer heat can be stored in underground aquifers CHP system  for use in winter for space heating and domestic hot water.

to produce most of the  However, this depends on the availability of such underground required electricity  reserves. A site geology survey can reveal the potential.

2.5MW  Community of Community-owned  1,500 homes wind turbine

Enough excess  renewable electricity  

Turbine provides top-up  for about 800 homes  

power to the scheme  sold back to grid  and offsets the CO2 and profits recycled  

Turbine located  from the gas burnt in  into further local  on-site on low  the CHP unit energy efficiency  ecological impact  and renewable  

on edge of town energy projects

A decentralised hybrid energy system supplying energy to a 1,500 home community and selling the excess electricity to the national grid

Source: XCO2

Vertical axis wind turbine, Bristol. Source: XCO2.

Although not strictly zero-carbon, producing energy from Quiet Revolution wind turbine:

whaass tger euasti npgo teeitnhteiarl .dTiraepcpt incgo minbtou satnio na bourn adnaanetr orebsico udricgeesfltoiown Temple Meads Circus, Bristol

reduces use of fossil fuels, demand for space and methane Temple Meads Circus is the proposed site for a novel  emissions from landfill. Old-style incineration has been small-scale vertical-axis wind turbine, called Quiet controversial but, in combination with CHP, new energy  Revolution, bringing together renewable energy, public  from waste technologies, such as pyrolysis, is clean and  art, and public information.

can make a valuable contribution to meeting energy needs.

The turbine will be located at a key focal point in the city  Consideration will need to be given to how energy from to increase awareness of renewable technologies. It will

waste fits in with a local authority s overall waste and generate 10,000kWh annually, enough to power three recycling strategy since important resources may be typical homes, while also displaying full-colour video and  redirected. As with biomass, transport of fuel from transfer still images on the swept surface of the turbine.

stations to the power plant will need to be fully considered.

Community involvement in the decision-making and More information: www.quietrevolution.co.uk management processes will be crucial to success.

case studies Bo01 sustainable district:  

Malm , Sweden

A derelict industrial zone in the western harbour is being Swaffham wind turbines: Norfolk redeveloped into a new urban quarter with a range of

employment and a college. Once completed, up to 10,000 Swaffham I was the UK s first multi-megawatt wind turbine people will live and work in the area supplied entirely  

and one of a new generation of direct drive, variable speed by locally generated renewable energy. Planning for this wind turbines. It was installed at the Ecotech Centre in demonstration development began in 1997 with the energy Swaffham, Norfolk, in October 1999 and produces enough system and 50,000m2 of residential development in place  electricity for around 3,000 people over a third of the by 2001.

population of Swaffham.

Energy is generated by 120m2 PVs, 1400m2 solar collectors, In 2003 Ecotricity sent over 100,000 leaflets to households a 2MW wind turbine, aquifers and a heat pump, and biogas

in Breckland and surrounding districts asking residents to produced from 1000 households. The biogas will be

vote yes or no to a second turbine. Around 89% of the produced in a plant just outside Malm and used in the almost 9,000 respondents voted in favour. existing natural gas network or for car fuel.

A second, larger turbine turbine was installed in 2005. With The vision behind the project was to build a city according  a capacity of 1.8MW it saves around 3,500 tonnes of CO2. to ecological principles. The project is based on the Swaffam I incorporates a viewing platform at the hub of the Kvalitetsprogrammet , a comprehensive document

turbine (65m high) which offers unprecendented views of communicating visions, goals, targets and management tools. the Norfolk countryside and has made the turbine a tourist

attraction as well as the main source of the town s electricity. During the project much has been learned about how to

combine technologies in an integrated system.

More information: www.ecotricity.co.uk

More information: www.ekostaden.com, www.sydkraft.se, www.malmo.se

Large wind turbine, Swaffham. Wind farm. Malm , Sweden.

Source: Ecotricity Source: npower renewables Source: Nicole Collomb, CABE

renewable energy generation: building scale

Supply renewable energy to individual buildings.

Typical house

Roofs, facades, gardens and open

space in urban and suburban locations

offer opportunities for renewable

technologies. Rural areas, where

densities are lower and the possibility

of connecting to energy networks is

limited, provide different opportunities.

Highly insulated building

Most micro-generation technologies can either operate

connected to a national or local grid or as stand-alone

systems that power buildings directly or feed into an energy

store, such as a battery. Micro-generation is suited to rural

locations where mains connectivity may not be available,  

as well as urban and suburban areas.

Biomas heating system in insulated and

There are concerns about the intermittency of renewable uninsulated buildings

systems and the need for backup. However all systems, The illustration above shows that a typical house requires renewable or otherwise, are to some extent intermittent.  significant storage (a hopper) and frequent deliveries during It is therefore important to have a diverse energy supply, the heating season, whereas a low-heat building needs little irrespective of source. storage for biomass fuels.

Large wind turbines are now commercially viable in many Source: XCO2

locations, while small scale (500W to 25kW) turbines are

also becoming increasingly cost-effective. As a result the

market for urban wind turbines is now growing. As with all For individual buildings, a biomass heating system can visible technologies, turbines should be sensitively sited and consist either of a room-heating stove or a boiler system the local community should be involved in these decisions. supplying space heating and hot water. Consideration

should be given to availability of fuels, space required Photovoltaic (PV) panels are ideally suited to the urban

for storage and access for deliveries.

environment since they utilise roof space and have little or

no visual impact. They can be easily integrated into buildings Where opportunities exist, gravity flow of rivers can be at different urban scales as outlined in Section 5. harvested using small or micro-hydro schemes. This is

a robust technology, especially in remote areas.

Solar thermal hot water systems can be retrofitted into existing

houses or integrated into the design of a new building. They Hydrogen fuel cells store and transport energy. This require direct access to sunlight. They are suited to flat or emerging technology will play an increasingly important pitched roofs on individual buildings or groups of houses. role in the design of sustainable energy systems.

Small-scale 500W wind turbine Biomas boiler, Kingsmead School. Kingsmead Primary School, Cheshire. with a PV array. Source: XCO2 Source: Cheshire CC Source: Cheshire County Council

case studies Beaufort Court: Kings Langley

Beaufort Court is a 2,500m conversion of an old egg farm into Kingsmead Primary School: an office headquarters for Renewable Energy Systems (RES).

It contains a mix of renewable energy strategies that provide Northwich, Cheshire the building with all of its power and heating requirements.

Completed in July 2004, Kingsmead Primary School has been The triangular site comprises 7ha of farmland located in a built as part of a new housing development. Core costs were metropolitan green belt. In order to provide for the new uses met by Cheshire County Council and the land was provided the existing buildings had to be radically altered and extended. through a Section 106 agreement with housing developers. However, the local planning authority required that the views The project has attracted several grants including £200,000 of the outside of the building must remain largely unchanged. from DfES, £100,000 from North West Development Agency Both the coach house and horseshoe buildings had to be

and £15,000 PV demonstration programme grant. converted for modern office use with additional exhibition, The 50kW Talbott C1 Biomass Boiler cost approximately catering, conference, meeting and main plant spaces.

£30,000 and is expected to provide around 60% of the The site is self-sufficient in energy and uses:

school s heat demand. The building management system  ¥ a 225kW wind turbine

co-ordinates the energy from the boiler and solar PV. The

boiler uses woodchip supplied from a local joint venture of ¥ a 170m2 solar array (54m2 PV, 116m2 solar thermal)

two private companies. This is expected to require around ¥ ground water cooling

35 tonnes per year of woodchip, and the school contains  ¥ a 100kW biomass boiler

a 10m3 storage bunker for monthly deliveries.

¥ inter-seasonal heat storage.

More information: www.kingsmead-school.co.uk,

There are zero CO emissions. www.talbotts.co.uk 2

In order to minimise the need for energy the development uses

a combination of active systems (mechanical ventilation, artificial The Core, Eden Project: Cornwall cooling, heating and lighting, building management systems)

and passive systems (solar heating, natural ventilation and

The Core is the education centre at The Eden Project  lighting, solar shading and a well-insulated building envelope

in Cornwall. It incorporates extensive use of PV modules  incorporating thermal mass). A monitoring programme will  

on the roof, which also provides a cover for the centre s show whether energy predictions prove to be correct.

 solar terrace , offsetting building material costs.

RES actively encourages staff to use public transport,

The roof generates enough electricity annually for seven average bicycles and car sharing for travel between home and office. three-bed houses, saving over nine tonnes of CO2 emissions. A green travel plan includes subsidised season ticket loans Major sponsors included the Millennium Commission  for rail travel, a hybrid fuel pool car, pool bikes, interest free Lottery, South West Regional Development Agency and  loans for bike purchase and bicycle mileage allowance.

the European Regional Development Fund (Objective One). More information: www.beaufortcourt.com

More information: www.solarcentury.co.uk, www.edenproject.com

Solar PV array replaces traditional roof materials. Zero-energy converted egg farm, Kings Langley. Source: Solarcentury Source: Fusion/Renewable Energy Systems

technologies

This section provides an overview of the low- and zero-carbon technologies that are available, including information on costing.

¥ combined heat and power (CHP)

¥ wind

¥ biomas and biofuel

¥ photovoltaic (PV) panels

¥ solar themal hot water collectors

¥ energy from waste

¥ ground source heat pumps (GSHP)

¥ wave and tidal power

¥ micro-/small-scale hydroelectric

¥ fuel cells

5

combined heat and power (CHP)

CHP is the production of electricity and useful heat from a single plant. Conventional electricity generation

is very inefficient as only a small

part of the input energy is converted to electricity (typically 2535%), with the remainder lost via cooling towers as waste heat.

In a CHP system, energy can be produced in the same way as conventional electricity, but the heat is retained for heating, hot water and cooling, and is distributed to customers via highly insulated pipes. This improves the overall efficiency of energy conversion to around 85%.

A conventional CHP system uses natural gas to drive an internal combustion engine. It reduces CO2 emissions compared to conventional distributed gas or electricity by 20-40%. Some of the heat can also be used to provide cooling via absorption chillers.

CHP is applicable on a variety of scales, from city-wide development down to individual buildings. Steady heat and power loads will improve the economics of CHP and so systems should be designed to allow a suitably sized engine to run at or near maximum capacity for as much of the day as possible.

Electricity generated by CHP can be sold in three ways:

1 It can be made available to energy supply companies.

Until recently only low prices could be obtained on the energy market. However, recent rises in the cost of energy has improved the economics for CHP operators.

Primary fuel Electricity generation 30 units of electricity 80 units 35% efficiency losses (50 units)

+

Primary fuel Heat generation 50 units of heat 60 units 85% efficiency losses (10 units)

Conventional energy network

Primary fuel Total efficiency 30 units of electricity 96 units 86%

50 units of heat losses 26 units

Community heating and CHP

The increase in efficiency of a CHP sustainable energy network over conventional energy supply

Source: XCO2

2 It can be transported over the wires of the local

distribution network operator and sold directly to other users. This incurs a distribution use of system charge.

3 The best prices can be obtained by selling directly to

domestic customers over a private wire network (PWN). When building a community heating system it is sensible to install a private distribution network at the same time. It will be necessary to establish or employ an energy services company (ESCo) at the same time to operate and manage the business (see Section 3.3).

Micro-CHP refers to small scale CHP, which is most commonly used for individual buildings. Two suppliers WhisperTech and Baxi31 have recently launched a gas heat engine (stirling engine) in the UK. Units are becoming smaller and quieter and have the potential to be used in place of traditional boilers within homes.

Technology analysis

Analysing the cost effectiveness of low- and zero-carbon technologies in relation to carbon saved and other environmental benefits, can be complex. In the following section the key technologies are presented with a cost analysis chart. The first bar shows the initial capital cost of a system, while the second shows the potential lifetime earnings. This takes into account any savings over procurement of conventional energy. The third bar shows the likely CO2 saved per annum. The typical energy demand per dwelling has been assumed as 70kWh/m2

per year for heating, 40kWh/m2 per year for hot water and 50kWh/m2 per year for electricity.

A table summarising all technologies is included on page 48.

Summary: CHP

¥ Increases efficiency over conventional grid supply by up to 50%.

¥ Reduces CO2 emissions by up to 40%.

¥ Can be used at all scales but most efficient when used as part of a sustainable energy network.

¥ Lifespan of around 15 years.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 CHP costs

3.9kg of CO2 saved 2

per £ of capital cost

0 0

wind

Wind turbines convert the power in the wind into electrical energy using rotating wing-like blades which drive a generator. They can either be connected to the national grid to export electricity, used directly for electricity or used to charge batteries for on-site use.

Wind turbines can range from small domestic turbines producing hundreds of watts of energy to large offshore turbines with a capacity of 3MW and a diameter of 100m.

Wind velocities are the key factor in the location of wind turbines. Care must be taken with site selection, particularly for larger turbines. A feasibility study should take into account wind speed and turbulence and constraints such

as radar stations, airports, landscape designations and proximity to special wildlife areas or bird migration corridors.

While horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs or propeller type ) are the most common, there is growing interest in vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) particularly in urban locations where they are thought to be able to cope

with more turbulent winds. Turbines have a cut-in (around 3m/s) and shut-down (around 25m/s) wind speed, between which the turbine is able to generate power. The optimum output is at around 1215m/s.

The UK has a huge potential wind resource. However, site constraints mean that the recorded capacity factor for onshore turbines in the UK is around 27%32.

Typical energy output in different average wind speeds

per m2 of swept area include:

kWh/m2/year 4.5m/s 5m/s 5.5m/s Small turbine 320 450 550 Large turbine 450 600 720

Varying scales and types of wind turbines.

Left: a 6kW VAWT Right: a small 500W HAWT. Source: XCO2

2.5MW 500KW 1KW Size of 80m diameter 1,400  40m diameter 320  2.5m diameter 1  typical tonnes CO2 offset  tonnes CO2 offset  tonne CO2 offset  house

and 1,500 homes  and 300 homes  and 1 home

powered annually powered annually powered annually

CO2 emissions offset and the number of homes powered by different sized turbines

These figures are based on standard assumptions and will vary depending on site-specific features.

Source: XCO2

Summary: wind

¥ Care should be taken in chosing turbine types and location to take advantage of available wind, but also to avoid or minimise visual impact.

¥ Developments will normally require planning permission.

¥ Larger turbines require suitable infrastructure.

¥ Can be stand-alone or integrated into a network.

¥ Lifespan of around 25 years, or less if connected to a battery.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 Small wind costs

4.5kg of CO2 saved 2

per £ of capital cost

0 0

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 Large wind costs

26.8kg of CO2 saved 2

per £ of capital cost 0 0

biomass and biofuel

Biomass is a generic term that describes the use of organic matter to produce energy. Biomass heating is a simple and proven technology, widely used across mainland Europe.

Biomass can be processed to produce either solid or liquid energy. Biomass fuels are virtually carbon-neutral. This is because the growing plant or tree absorbs CO2 in its lifetime, and the same amount is released upon conversion to energy.

Biofuel is diesel or ethanol replacement derived from plant matter or natural feedstocks via a chemical or biological process. Biomass or biofuels are currently being produced from a variety of plant types such as short rotation willow coppicing as well as from waste materials like cooking oil or waste wood.

Biomass can be used in space heating, for hot water and in CHP units.

Biomass heating needs space for storage of fuel, but this requirement is reducing as houses become better insulated under tighter building regulations, as illustrated in the table below.

The production of biofuels offers a new economic opportunity for farmers.

Typical existing house New build low energy house

15000 5 15000 5 4 4

10000 3 3

10000

2 2 5000 5000

1 1 0 0 0 0

Assumptions: 75m house, 85% efficiency of heating system, £130 a ton of wood pellets Source: XCO2

The biomass process from field to boiler

Short rotation coppice for fuel for a biomass boiler. Sources: www.coppiceresource.co.uk and www.engext.ksu.edu/biomass

Small-scale biomass energy generation: annual fuel requirements

Size Properties  Annual fuel  Physical size Technology

served requirement comparison

15kWth One family  5odt Large suitcase Boiler

house

350kWth School  100odt Garage Boiler 1MWe 200  500odt Garden shed Boiler

houses

250kWe 250  1,500odt Small barn  Gasifier/ houses + fuel store pyrolyser/

engine 1MWth 1,000  500odt Medium barn  Gasifier/

houses + fuel store pyrolyser/ engine

1MWth 1,000  8,600odt Medium barn  Boiler

houses + fuel store

kWth = 1,000W of thermal power i.e heat MWe= 100kW of electrical power

Odt = oven dry tonnes: dry weight of the fuel

Summary: biomass and biofuel

¥ Virtually carbon neutral (CO2 emissions associated with transportation).

¥ Cost of fuel is comparative with conventional heating fuel, and will improve as fossil fuel prices increase.

¥ Can operate at a variety of scales.

¥ Storage of fuel and disposal of ash are considerations.

¥ Biomass can be processed as low moisture content pellets or burned in situ.

¥ Lifespan of approximately 20 years.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 Biomass costs

9.8kg of CO2 saved 2

per £ of capital cost

0 0

photovoltaic (PV) panels

Photovoltaics are materials capable

of converting daylight into direct current electricity. In principle they are the ideal source of renewable energy

as they harness the most abundant source of energy on earth: the sun. They also produce electricity which

is the most useful form of energy.

PVs are silent, have no moving parts and a long life with zero maintenance levels. PV systems can either be connected to the national grid or used as stand-alone systems which are more suited to remote locations. Grid-connected systems consist of PV arrays which use a charge controller and an inverter to convert the direct current into the more useable alternating current.

PV cells are more efficient at lower temperatures so they ideally require good ventilation. Overshadowing will reduce energy production; however, direct sunlight is not necessary for energy output and they will operate throughout the year. The orientation and angle of the arrays also affects the output (see table below).

Outputs are measured using kilowatts peak (kWp), which refers to the maximum output a module will have under standard test conditions. Typically, the area required per kWp is 6.516m2; approximately 2.5 kWp is needed to supply all the electricity for a typical three-bedroom house. Usual maintenance involves a site inspection every year with a more comprehensive check every five years.

Currently efficiencies are only around 18% but recent advances in technologies and economies in the manufacturing process are likely to see efficiencies increase and prices fall.

A building-integrated roof tile PV system and a conventional roof-mounted PV array. Source: XCO2

Summary: PV

¥ Silent operation with no moving parts, leaving minimal operational or maintenance costs.

¥ Can be integrated into the building fabric, thereby offsetting costs such as solar shading, roofing or cladding.

¥ Does not require direct sunlight, though care must be taken to avoid overshadowing.

¥ May have implications for load capacity of the roof or structure of a building.

¥ Lifespan of at least 1520 years.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 Photovoltaic costs

2

2.4kg of CO2 saved

per £ of capital cost 0 0

Angle of PV array

0ß 45ß 90ß

-12% Optimum -30%

750KWh/yr

0ß

-12% -1% -30% 15ß

-12% -3% -30% 30ß

-12% -6% -32%

45ß

Actual optimum: 35-37ß inclination Assumptions: 4m array

south orientation 18% efficiency

Optimum orientation for PV

The table shows the varying scales of output from a 4m2 solar array depending on orientation and angle of the PV cells.

Source: XCO2

solar thermal hot water collectors

Solar water heating harnesses the sun s rays to heat water that can then be used for either space heating or, more commonly, domestic hot water heating. The system consists of solar collectors that are often roof-mounted. Water or oil is passed through the collectors to a heat exchanger in the hot water cylinder, which will also have a top-up heat source from a conventional system.

Solar thermal collectors fall into two broad categories: flat plate and evacuated tube collectors.

Flat plate collectors are usually glazed (though unglazed versions are also used). They work by exposing a broad, flat expanse of absorber to the sun. This transfers its heat directly to water, while the glazing creates a greenhouse effect and rear insulation reduces unwanted heat loss. They are less expensive than evacuated tube collectors but also slightly less efficient and subject to convective and conductive losses.

In an evacuated tube collector the absorber surface is placed inside a glass tube. The air is removed to stop nearly all convective and conductive losses. These collectors either directly heat water or use a liquid that boils when heated and condenses to transfer heat energy to water. Evacuated tubes are more efficient and expensive than flat plate collectors.

Solar thermal collectors can still produce energy with diffused sunlight and are therefore ideally suited to the UK climate.

A typical domestic installation will be 46m2 of flat plate or 23m2 of evacuated tube, costing around £3,5004,000

and meeting 5070% of hot water demand. A solar thermal array acts in a similar way to PV arrays in terms of their orientation and inclination. The best performance comes

from south-facing arrays with an inclination of 30¡ to 45¡ (see the table on the previous page).

Evacuated tube collectors. Source: Rayotec Limited

Solar thermal competes against the viability of CHP and community heating because it reduces the demand for heating which is needed to make CHP and community heating efficient and economic. Solar thermal arrays can also work on a larger scale but care must be taken to minimise the distance between the solar thermal collectors as long pipe runs increase the heat loss.

Solar thermal collectors are relatively simple to install by any suitably trained plumber, although a specialist installer is recommended. An annual maintenance check should be carried out to ensure there is no corrosion and the collectors are clean.

Summary: solar thermal

¥ Can be either flat plate (cheaper) or evacuated tube (more efficient) collectors.

¥ Does not require direct sunlight, though care must be taken to avoid overshadowing.

¥ Can be used with combination boilers.

¥ Lifespan of at least 20 to 25 years.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 Solar thermal 2

3.0kg of CO2 saved

per £ of capital cost 0 0

Flat plate collectors. Source: Solarcentury

energy from waste

Harnessing the energy in waste can reduce both carbon emissions and the pressure on landfill sites and sewage treatment plants. Any organic matter can be used to produce energy through the processes described below.

Anaerobic digestion (AD)

Around 90 million tonnes of waste is produced in the UK each year, of which 62% is biodegradable.33

AD replicates the natural process that occurs in landfill sites. Organic waste can be placed in an oxygen-free environment, causing the waste to be reduced into a digestate that can

be used for a high quality fertiliser similar to compost.During this process methane can be siphoned off and used as fuel. Alternatively, although less efficient, the methane produced in landfill sites can be used directly as a fuel.

After taking into account efficiencies and the energy content of the gas methane, AD could supply the UK with 1.9% of its current energy demand.

Waste incineration

Although mass waste incineration has been used for decades, tighter regulations on pollution have meant that capacity has fallen. New cleaner technologies mean that direct incineration of municipal waste is now viable in urban areas. Using the same calculation method as AD, direct incineration of waste could provide 5% of the UK s energy demand, reducing waste to landfill by over 60%.

Pyrolysis/gasification

Pyrolysis and gasification (P&G) are very similar technologies. They involve the processing of waste in

an oxygen-free (pyrolysis) or oxygen-reduced environment (gasification). Pyrolysis produces a rich oil and a solid residue known as char , which can be burnt as a fuel. Gasification only produces gas from the waste. The

flow diagram above shows the gasification process.

Gasifier plant.

Source: www.dsiaq.ing.univeq.it

The main advantage of P&G over direct incineration is that the process retains any pollutants. Efficiencies are also higher (approximately 35%) making it feasible to provide up to 9% of the UK s energy demand. P&G can also work at smaller scales where direct incineration is neither viable nor economic (less than 150,000 tonnes of waste a year).

The main drawback with P&G is the need to prepare

the waste: fuel needs to be shredded or broken down before entering the gasifier, and this involves extra cost. Public opinion still opposes large-scale incinerators for reasons of visual intrusion and possible harmful emissions. Therefore, the absence of any emissions should be

seen as an important benefit.

Summary: energy from waste

¥ Energy can be obtained from waste through anaerobic digestion, direct incineration, pyrolysis or gasification.

¥ Reduces the amount of waste sent to landfil, but may conflict with recycling objectives.

¥ Modern technologies are clean and very efficient.

¥ Can be used at the large and small scales.

¥ Cost will depend on the technology used. However, as it is possible to offset some of the costs of waste disposal against energy from waste it can cost as little as £0.05 per kWh generated.

More information: www.managenergy.net, www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

ground source heat pumps (GSHP)

Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) harness energy from the ground. Ambient air temperatures vary widely throughout the year, however ground temperature is stable.

Stable ground temperatures make it possible to use the heat in the ground during the winter months to provide for some heating needs. Conversely, in the summer months it is also possible to cool buildings using the relatively lower ground temperatures.

A typical system consists of a ground-to-water heat exchanger (often called the ground loop or ground coil ), a heat pump and a distribution system. Water passes around the system and absorbs heat from the ground. This heat is relayed via the heat pump into the building. The heat exchanger can either consist of a bore hole, where long pipes are driven deep into the ground, or trench system, which operates at shallower depths. A heat pump is a device that can take low grade heat and raise it to a usable higher temperature. Using a compressor, it works in much the same way as a fridge.

Underfloor heating is the most efficient way to distribute the heat. A GSHP has little or no maintenance costs. The pump can be replaced without having to replace the rest of the system.

The overall efficiency of the system depends on factors including the type of system used, the geology of the site and the performance of the heat pump.

wave and tidal power

Harnessing the energy in waves and tides, this technology is restricted to locations where the resources are available, such as coastal towns.

Marine energy can be harnessed using several different technologies such as tidal stream turbines and reciprocating tidal stream devices, and oscillating water columns and point absorbers (wave) that can harness the power in moving ocean currents.

Summary: wave and tidal

¥ Restricted to coastal locations, but a variety of technologies are available.

¥ An emerging technology though it is proving to be robust and durable.

¥ High capital costs, but wave generators have the potential to generate more power than wind turbines.

¥ Output depends on wave height, tidal power and technology choice.

¥ Care must be taken to avoid damage to the marine environment and conflict with navigation.

¥ As an emerging technology the costs are hard to predict. Individual suppliers should be contacted.

More information: www.bwea.com/marine, www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

Summary: ground source heat pumps

¥ Provide either heating or cooling.

¥ Trench systems require a large area.

¥ Borehole systems need access for drilling, a geological survey and possibly a permit from the Environment Agency.

¥ Life span for heat pump around 15 years; for the coil system around 30 years.

¥ A typical borehole system costs around £1,000 per kilowatt.

¥ Trench systems cost around £500700 per kilowatt. More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

12

10 3

8

2 6

4

1 GSHP costs

1.3kg of CO2 saved  2

per £ of capital cost 0 0

Pelamis Wave Energy Converters (www.oceanpd.com). Source: www.dsiaq.ing.univeq.it

micro-/small-scale hydroelectric

Hydroelectric generation captures energy from flowing water. It most commonly involves the construction

of a dam and a reservoir. Water is released from the reservoir and, as it falls, turns a turbine which generates electricity. The amount of power generated is related to the flow of water and the distance the water falls.

It is also possible to harness power from flowing streams

this is known as micro-hydro . Current technology limits efficiencies at head heights of less than three metres. Care has to be taken with the environmental impact of hydroelectric systems as the creation of dams and reservoirs can have an adverse impact on wildlife and can flood land that might be of use for farming.

Currently the UK generates about 2% of its power from hydroelectric, but there is potential to increase this by up to 40%.

Summary: micro-/small-scale hydroelectric

¥ Harnesses the energy in flowing water courses.

¥ A range of technologies are available.

¥ Visual and water ecology impacts need to be considered.

¥ Small reservoirs may be required.

¥ A robust and durable technology that generally produces high outputs with low very running costs.

¥ Capital costs will be generally high, but will vary according to the scale and may need to cover site-specific issues.

More information: www.dti.gov.uk/renewables

Micro-hydro.

Source: Hydroplan and Glen Kinglas Hydro, Strone Estate, Argyll

fuel cells

Fuel cells convert hydrogen and air into heat and power with the only by-product being water.

Fuel cells require hydrogen to power them. This has to

be manufactured using primary energy (fossil, solar or wind), and there is an efficiency loss in the conversion process.

There is interest in the potential of fuel cells to power vehicles as well as to provide a store for heat and power in buildings. They are almost silent in operation, have few or no moving parts, and require little maintenance. Efficiencies are around 60%, almost double that of an internal combustion engine. They are currently relatively expensive.

Fuel cell unit

Electricity Electricity

Air Heat

Fuel cell stack

Source: XCO2 Water

Summary: fuel cells

¥ Efficiencies of around 60%.

¥ Pollution free: by-product is water.

¥ Fossil-fuel energy is required to produce hydrogen fuel.

¥ No moving parts, silent operation and little or no maintenance.

¥ Can be used at micro up to very large scales.

¥ Lifespan is at least 20 years.

¥ Cost of about £1,000 per kilowatt is often cited.

More information: www.fuelcelltoday.com, www.fuelscellsuk.org

Hydrogen fuel cell.

Source: www.hydrogen.org.au

references and further information/ glossary

references and futher information

1. TCPA (2004) Biodiversity by design: a guide for sustainable communities , TCPA, London.
2. Hulme M., Jenkins G., Lu X., Turnpenny J., Mitchell D., Jones R. K., Lowe J., Murphy J., Hassell D., Boorman P., McDonald R., Hill S. (2002) Climate change scenarios for the UK: the UKCI2 scientific report , Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK (www.ukcip.org.uk).
3. HM Government (2005) Securing the future UK Government sustainable development strategy (www.sustainable-development.gov.uk).
4. HM Government (2003) Energy white paper: our energy future creating a low carbon economy (www.dti.gov.uk/energy/whitepaper).
5. London Renewables (2004) Integrating renewable energy into new developments toolkit for planners, developers and consultants , GLA, London. Provides advice on technologies, costing, case studies and problem solving, and is supported by training sessions for planners in each borough and free advice for developers (www.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/ energy/london_renew.jsp).
6. Kyoto Protocol (www.unep.org).
7. EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (www.odpm.gov.uk and www.diag.org.uk

for more information).

8. UK Building Regulations (www.odpm.gov.uk).
9. Sustainability standards: EcoHomes/BREEAM (www.bre.co.uk); Bioregional (www.bioregional.com); The Association for Environment Conscious

Building (www.aecb.org); the Energy Saving Trust (www.est.org.uk); Code for Sustainable Homes (www.odpm.gov.uk).

10 Sustainable and Secure Buildings Act 2004.

11 DTI (2005) Micro-generation strategy and low

carbon buildings programme consultation , DTI, UK (www.dti.gov.uk).

12 Planning Policy Statements: PPS1 (delivering

sustainable development) and PPS22 (renewable energy). Others also refer to sustainable development, energy and climate change (see www.odpm.gov.uk).

13 Mayor of London (2004) The Mayor s energy

strategy: a green light to clean power , GLA, London (www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies).

14 Mayor of London (2004) The London Plan:

spatial development strategy for Greater London , GLA, London (www.london.gov.uk/mayor/strategies).

16 Clear Skies (www.clear-skies.org) and the Major

PV Demonstration Programme (www.est.org.uk/ housingbuildings/ funding/solarpv programmes); Low Carbon Buildings Programme (www.dti.gov.uk).

17 The Energy Saving Trust (www.est.org.uk) and the

Carbon Trust (www.thecarbontrust.co.uk).

18 Enhanced Capital Allowance scheme (www.eca.gov.uk).

19 Leicester Energy Agency (www.energyagency.co.uk).

The Association of UK Energy Agencies (www.natenergy.org.uk/aukea).

20 Epstein D., Turrent D., Thomas R. (forthcoming)

 Green guide for sustainable development in Ashford ,

CABE, London.

21 TCPA (2003) Residential densities policy statement

(www.tcpa.org.uk/policy_files/densities.pdf).

22 Countryside Agency (2003) Concept statements and

Local Development Documents: practical guidance for local planning authorities , Countryside Agency, Cheltenham (www.countryside.gov.uk).

23 GLA (2002) A city of villages: promoting a sustainable

future for London s suburbs, SDS technical report 11 , produced for the GLA by TCPA/Urbed.

24 For example Radiance (sophisticated lighting simulation

software); Ecotect (www.squ1.com); and ICUE which looks at solar radiation on buildings.

25 CABE (2004) Design coding: testing its use in England ,

CABE with ODPM and English Partnerships, London.

26 Llewelyn-Davies (2000) The urban design compendium ,

English Partnerships and Housing Corporation, London.

27 Lazarus, N. (2003) Beddington Zero (fossil) Energy

Development: toolkit for carbon neutral developments Part II , BioRegional Development Group, London.

28 BRE (2000) The green guide to housing specification ,

BRE, Watford (www.bre.co.uk).

29 Energy Saving Trust(2003) Energy efficiency best

practice in housing: energy efficiency in new housing. Specifications for England, Wales and Scotland ,

EST, London.

30 Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (www.cibse.org) and BRE (www.bre.co.uk).

31 WhisperTech (www.whispertech.co.nz or

www.onboardenergy.co.uk) and Baxi (www.baxitech.co.uk).

32 Sinden, G. (2005) Wind power and the UK wind

resource , Environmental Change Institute, Oxford.

33 DETR (1999) Limiting landfill , DETR, London.

15 Countryside Agency (2005) The countryside in and

around towns: a vision for connecting town and country in the pursuit of sustainable development , Countryside Agency, Cheltenham (www.countryside.gov.uk).

Also, the Community Renewables Initiative (www.countryside.gov.uk/LAR/Landscape/CRI/index.asp).

Climate change information

¥ LGA (2005) Leading the way: how local authorities can meet the challenge of climate change , LGA Publications with EST and Energy Efficiency Partnerships for Homes, London.

¥ HM Government (2000) The UK climate change programme , HM Government, London.

¥ ODPM, Welsh Assembly Government, and the Scott ish Executive (2004) The planning response to climate change: advice on better practice , ODPM, London.

Community energy networks

¥ Community Energy (2004) Community heating for planners and developers: a guide to delivering sustainable communities using combined heat

and power and renewables. Ref: GPG389 .

Energy Saving Trust and Carbon Trust (www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings/communityenergy).

¥ Greenpeace (2005) Decentralising power: an energy revolution for the 21st century , Greenpeace, London.

General sustainable energy

¥ A range of publications and case studies are available from the EST website (www.est.org.uk/housingbuildings/ communityenergy).

¥ Anderson K., Shackel S., Mander S., Bows A. (2005) Decarbonising the UK: energy for a climate concious future , Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich.

¥ Simms A., Kjell P., Woodward D. (2005) Mirage and oasis: energy choices in an age of global warming. The trouble with nuclear power and the potential of renewable energy , New Economics Foundation and Ashden Awards for Sustainable Energy, London.

¥ Energy Saving Trust (2005) Delivering the Government s 2020 vision for local energy generation , EST, London.

Sustainable development

¥ Boardman B., Darby S., Killip G., Hinnells M., Jardine C., Palmer J., Sinden G. (2005) 40% house , Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford.

¥ Under the system proposed by Essex County Council, developers would have to achieve a certain number of green points in order to secure planning permission (www.essex.gov.uk).

¥ Bartlett School of Planning (2003) Urban fringe

policy, regulatory and literature research. Report 2.1: waste, minerals and energy , Report 2.4: transport ,

and Report 2.8: housing , Countryside Agency, London.

¥ TCPA and WWF-UK (2003) Building sustainably: how to plan and construct new housing for the 21st century

report of the TCPA s Sustainable Housing Forum , TCPA, London.

¥ UNEP (2002) Capacity building for sustainable development: an overview of UNEP environmental capacity development activities , UNEP, Nairobi.

Other useful organisations

¥ BRE centre of expertise on buildings, runs BREEAM/EcoHomes (www.bre.co.uk).

¥ The Carbon Trust a government-funded independent company, helps businesses and the public sector to cut carbon emissions (www.thecarbontrust.co.uk).

¥ CIRIA improves the performance of the construction industry (www.ciria.org.uk).

¥ Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (www.defra.gov.uk).

¥ Department of Trade and Industry (www.dti.gov.uk).

¥ The Energy Saving Trust a government-funded independent company which aims to helps cut carbon emissions across the residential sector (www.est.co.uk).

¥ The Housing Corporation funds and regulates Registered Social Landlords in England (www.housingcorp.gov.uk).

¥ Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) administers the building regulations and the planning system, and will be responsible for the Code for Sustainable Homes (www.odpm.gov.uk).

¥ Royal Town Planning Institute the professional body representing planners (www.rtpi.org.uk).

¥ Sustainable Homes runs a searchable EcoDatabase with 1,500 best practice examples, which includes a description of the development, environmental features and payback times (www.sustainablehomes.co.uk).

¥ The UK Climate Impacts Programme publishes scenarios showing how the UK s climate might change and co-ordinates research (www.ukcip.org.uk).

¥ WWF-UK One million sustainable homes campaign (www.wwf.org.uk/sustainablehomes).

¥ XCO2 an engineering and design studio providing low carbon solutions in the built environment (www.xco2.co.uk).

glossary

Energy terms used in this guide

Airtight: buildings that minimise the uncontrolled flow of air through gaps and cracks in its fabric.

Carbon-neutral: development achieving zero net carbon emissions from energy use on site, on an annual basis.

Daylighting/sunlighting: amount of natural light that a building and its interior can receive.

Demand profile: details the energy demand of a building or group of buildings according to time of day, season

and so on. This can help inform energy supply options and design solutions.

Embedded generation: electricity generation plant connected directly to the local distribution network rather than to the national grid (also referred to as distributed generation ).

Energy network (also community or sustainable energy network): privately owned and operated heating, cooling or power circuit that can operate independently

of the national grid.

Greenhouse gases: a group of gases that absorb

solar radiation, storing some of the heat in the atmosphere, resulting in global warming.

Heat recovery: a system for maximising efficiency by recovering and reusing heat that would otherwise be lost through a ventilation or exhaust system.

Low- or zero-carbon technologies: technologies that produce energy with low or zero net carbon emissions, compared with energy produced by standard fossil fuel generation.

Passive ventilation: the controlled flow of air into and out of a building through purpose-built non-mechanical ventilators.

Planning gain: Section 106 of the Town & Country Planning Act 1990 sets out the arrangements whereby local authorities, in granting planning permission, can require developers to pay for planning and other community gains related to the particular development. Also known

as planning obligations .

Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROCS): Certificates granted under the Renewables Obligation, which requires power suppliers to supply a percentage

of their energy from renewable sources. For each megawatt of energy generated the producer receives an ROC which can be traded on the free market with generators unable

to reach their target. The scheme can improve the cost effectiveness of renewable energy generation.

Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP): the Government s recommended system for the energy rating of buildings.

Thermal mass: the effect of high thermal mass (heavier or thicker walls for instance) is to even out variations in temperature, thereby keeping a building cooler in summer and warmer in winter.

U-value: the rate of transfer of heat through materials of the building. The lower the U-value, the better the insulation.

Measures used in this guide

GWh Gigawatt hours

ha Hectare

kg/m2 Kilograms per metre square

kW  Kilowatt

kWe Kilowatts electricity

kWh Kilowatt hours

kWp Kilowatt peak

m Metres

m2 Metre squared

m3 Metre cubed

m/s Metres per second

MW Megawatt

MWh Megawatt hour

W/m K Measure of the U-Value (watts per metre

squared expressed on the Kelvin scales)

Technology analysis summary table

This table summarises the technology analysis data in Section 5. All costs are shown per dwelling and should

be used as guides only. Compliance with prescriptive planning policies and increasingly the building regulations, will require more in-depth analysis. Tools such as the London Renewables Toolkit 5 and organisations such

as CIBSE 30 and BRE 28 can assist with this process.

CHP 4,600 6,610 17,808 3.9 Large wind 1,125 10,063 30,100 26.8 small wind 7,400 11,059 33,080 4.5 PV 8,000 5,175 19,350 2.4 Solar thermal 2,500 1,400 7,600 3.0 GSHP 5,000 4,900 6,533 1.3 Biomass 3,000 1,797 29,260 9.8

TCPA January 2006 ISBN: 0 902797 39 5

Design and print: Calvert s www.calverts.coop

Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper, with vegetable oil based inks

Town and Country Planning Association 17 Carlton House Terrace

London SW1Y 5AS

T 020 7930 8903 F 020 7930 3280 W www.tcpa.org.uk